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To identify the typical pattern of changes of vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) and explore the relationship between VEMPs and the anthropometry factors in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).Patients diagnosed as OSA after overnight polysomnography (PSG) tests were enrolled as the study group. Healthy volunteers were recruited as the control group. Anthropometry data of the body shape and VEMPs results were collected completely. The correlation analysis was conducted among those parameters.Forty-nine patients with OSA who were diagnosed in the Therapy Center of Sleep-disordered Breathing in our hospital and sex- and age-matched healthy controls as well. Significant changes in ocular and cervical VEMPs (oVEMP and cVEMP) in the study group were observed, which were reduced response rates, elevated thresholds, decreased amplitudes, and prolonged first wave latencies. In oVEMP, the first wave (n1) latency was significantly correlated with weight, body mass index (BMI), neck circumference, waist circumference, hip circumference, and apnea hypopnea index (AHI). In a tentative application, combined use of BMI and oVEMP n1 latency increased the detection rate during OSA screening prior to PSG.OSA can negatively affect function of otolithic organs and their pathways. The first wave latency of the VEMPs waveform may be another important parameter to define peripheral nervous system lesions caused by systemic diseases as OSA.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Obesity is one of the leading causes of non-communicable diseases (NCD). Thus, NCD risk varies in obese individuals based on the location of their fat depots; while subcutaneous adiposity is protective, visceral adiposity increases NCD risk. Although, previously anthropometric traits have been used to quantify body shape in low-income settings, there is no consensus on how it should be assessed. Hence, there is a growing interest to evaluate body shape derived from the principal component analysis (PCA) of anthropometric traits; however, this is yet to be explored in individuals of African ancestry whose body shape is different from those of Europeans. We set out to capture body shape in its multidimensional structure and examine the association between genetic variants and body shape in individuals of African ancestry. METHOD AND RESULTS: We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for body shape derived from PCA analysis of anthropometric traits in the Ugandan General Population Cohort (GPC, n = 6407) and the South African Zulu Cohort (SZC, n = 2595), followed by a GWAS meta-analysis to assess the genetic variants associated with body shape. We identified variants in FGF12, GRM8, TLX1NB and TRAP1 to be associated with body shape. These genes were different from the genes been associated with BMI, height, weight, WC and waist-hip ration in continental Africans. Notably, we also observed that a standard deviation change in body shape was associated with an increase in blood pressure and blood lipids. CONCLUSION: Variants associated with body shape, as a composite variable might be different for those of individual anthropometric traits. Larger studies are required to further explore these phenomena.

This study examined the relative influence of trait and state weight, shape, and eating concerns on dysregulated eating in the daily lives of sexual minority women with overweight and obesity. This study is a secondary analysis of data from an Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) study of 55 sexual minority women with overweight/obesity. Trait shape, weight, and eating concerns were assessed at baseline. For the following five days, participants used a smartphone to report state weight/shape concerns, overeating, and binge eating five times daily. Women who endorsed higher levels of trait weight, shape, and eating concerns at baseline reported more frequent state weight/shape concerns in daily life. Trait eating concerns were associated with higher odds of binge eating during EMA, but trait weight/shape concerns were unrelated to future dysregulated eating. In daily life, state weight/shape concerns was associated with greater risk for over/binge eating at the concurrent EMA prompt, the subsequent EMA prompt, and over the course of a full day, independent of trait concerns. State weight and shape concerns may play an important role in predicting dysregulated eating in daily life among sexual minority women of higher body weight.

Background and aims It is still unclear which anthropometric parameter is most associated with significant coronary artery disease (CAD). We examined the relationship of the prevalence and severity of coronary artery disease with body composition indices. Methods and results Patients aged 18–80 years who were admitted to the cardiology outpatient clinic with any complaints, and were indicated for coronary angiography as a result of the examinations, were included in this study and divided into two groups. Group 1 had significant stenosis (161 patients, 104 males, mean age: 64.1 ± 10.5 years), while Group 2 had non-significant stenosis (75 patients, 48 males, mean age: 58.9 ± 11.8 years). Significant stenosis was defined as narrowing of 50% or more of the arterial lumens in any vessel or its lateral branch. Height, weight, waist and hip circumferences and body composition indices of all patients were measured. The SYNTAX and Gensini scores were calculated for all patients undergoing angiography. Group 1 had significantly higher waist circumferences (WC), body roundness indices (BRI), body fat percentages, and waist/height ratios than Group 2. In the correlation analysis, WC, BRI, waist/hip ratio and waist/height ratio were significantly correlated with the Gensini score. WC, hip circumference, BRI, body fat percentage and waist/height ratio were significantly correlated with the SYNTAX score. In the multivariate regression analysis, BRI was the parameter best related to significant CAD. Conclusion BRI, body fat percentage, waist circumference and waist/height ratio were higher in patients with significant stenosis. BRI was the parameter most closely related to the Gensini and SYNTAX scores and to significant CAD.

Clades of marine fishes exhibit many patterns of diversification, ranging from relatively constant throughout time to rapid changes in the rates of speciation and extinction. The goatfishes (Syngnatharia: Mullidae) are a family of marine, reef associated fishes with a relatively recent origin, distributed globally in tropical and temperate waters. Despite their abundance and economic importance, the goatfishes remain one of the few coral reef families for which the species level relationships have not been examined using genomic techniques. Here we use phylogenomic analysis of ultra-conserved elements (UCE) and exon data to resolve a well-supported, time-calibrated phylogeny for 72 species of goatfishes, supporting a recent crown age of the goatfishes at 21.9 million years ago. We used this framework to test hypotheses about the associations among body shape morphometrics, taxonomy, and phylogeny, as well as to explore relative diversification rates across the phylogeny. Body shape was strongly associated with generic-level taxonomy of goatfishes, with morphometric analyses showing evidence for high phylogenetic signal across all morphotypes. Rates of diversification in this clade reveal a recent sharp increase in lineage accumulation, with 92% of the goatfish species sampled across all clades and major body plans having originated in just the past 5 million years. We suggest that habitat diversity in the early Pliocene oceans and the generalist ecology of goatfishes are key factors in the unusual evolutionary tempo of the family Mullidae.

Sediment, as a natural component of rivers, directly affects the abundance and function of phytoplankton by altering water physicochemical properties. Despite mounting evidence for the sensitivity of phytoplankton to environmental factors, the responses of phytoplankton functional groups to complex environmental changes in rivers with a heavy sediment load are still poorly understood. Herein, the effectiveness of phytoplankton functional groups was evaluated as an indicator of aquatic environmental changes in a heavily sediment-laden river. Samples were collected from 44 sites (22 free-flowing river sections and 22 man-made reservoir sections) with a mean annual sediment concentration of 4.69 kg m

Body image research with men who have sex with men (MSM) has largely focused on White MSM. The current study aimed to investigate whether men of color who have sex with men (MCSM) report similar levels of body dissatisfaction as White MSM. We also studied whether (a) the experience of sexual racism, a unique stressor for MCSM, is related to body dissatisfaction and (b) body image inflexibility moderates the relationship between sexual racism and muscularity-oriented behaviors. White MSM and MCSM (total N = 887) recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk completed questionnaires assessing body dissatisfaction, body image flexibility, and experienced sexual racism on Qualtrics. We found that MCSM report more engagement in behaviors aimed at changing their bodies than White MSM. Additionally, experiencing sexual racism was related to higher body dissatisfaction and body image inflexibility in MCSM. In addition, body image inflexibility moderated by strengthening the association between experiencing sexual racism and muscularity-oriented behaviors. The present study highlights the need for further research with this understudied population, including intervention studies on mitigating the impact of experiencing sexual racism by increasing psychological and body image flexibility and studies aimed at reducing the incidence of sexual racism.

Common models propose that the internalization of societal beauty ideals influences disordered eating behaviors and muscularity-oriented behaviors via body image concerns. However, previous studies addressing these pathways have been mainly cross-sectional and primarily included female samples. We investigated these pathways prospectively in male and female adolescents and young adults, examining two pathways: a 'weight/shape pathway,' linking thin-ideal internalization, weight/shape concern, and restrained eating, and a 'muscularity pathway,' linking athletic-ideal internalization, muscularity concern, and muscularity-oriented behavior. Across three time points, 973 participants from the German general population were assessed. Although the hypothesized pathways could not be supported in their complete temporal sequence, several hypothesized pathways occurred across two time points. Among others, weight/shape concern predicted restrained eating and the athletic ideal played a prominent role in the prediction of muscularity-oriented behavior in both genders.

Growth control establishes organism size, requiring mechanisms to sense and adjust growth during development. Studies of single cells revealed that size homeostasis uses distinct control methods. In multicellular organisms, mechanisms that regulate single cell growth must integrate control across organs and tissues during development to generate adult size and shape. We leveraged the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans as a scalable and tractable model to collect precise growth measurements of thousands of individuals, measure feeding behavior, and quantify changes in animal size and shape during a densely sampled developmental time course. As animals transitioned from one developmental stage to the next, we observed changes in body aspect ratio while body volume remained constant. Then, we modeled a physical mechanism by which constraints on cuticle stretch could cause changes in C. elegans body shape. The model-predicted shape changes are consistent with those observed in the data. Theoretically, cuticle stretch could be sensed by the animal to initiate larval-stage transitions, providing a means for physical constraints to influence developmental timing and growth rate in C. elegans.

Body constitution plays an important role in human mate choice. Cross-cultural research reports that women on average prefer men with muscular physique. It is still unclear, however, what mechanisms influence the inter-individual variation in mate preferences and choices of partner's physique. In this study, we tested the mechanisms of an imprinting-like effect (similarity between father and an ideal and actual partner) and of homogamy (similarity between self and an ideal and actual partner) for male physique in heterosexual women and homosexual men. To assess the variation in male physique, we employed somatotype paradigm which characterizes body constitution using three components: endomorphic (heavy-set), mesomorphic (muscular), and ectomorphic (lean). In total, 149 homosexual men and 769 heterosexual women from the Czech Republic indicated the somatotype of their father, ideal and actual partner, and in homosexual men also their own somatotype. In line with previous research, the somatotype most preferred by both men and women was the mesomorphic, followed by the ectomorphic and the endomorphic one. Women's preferences for an ideal partner somatotype weakly correlated with their fathers' somatotype, especially in women who reported a positive relationship with their fathers during childhood. Among homosexual men, we found imprinting-like preferences only for the ectomorphic somatotype component and no significant association with the quality of their relationships with their fathers. We also found no significant relationship between the fathers' and actual partners' somatotype in either heterosexual women or homosexual men. Our research indicates that fathers have a rather weak influence on mate preference for somatotypes and no influence on actual mate choice.

Sport climbing has become a very popular and competitive sport. Despite growing interest in the research of climbing, there is still scant evidence regarding the adaptations it produces in the anthropometric characteristics of climbers. The objective of this study was to provide descriptive data about the anthropometric and somatotype characteristics of a group of elite and recreational climbers and compare them with a group of healthy non-climber volunteers. Twelve elite climbers (9 males and 3 females), 10 recreational climbers (7 males and 3 females), and 10 healthy non-climbers (6 males and 4 females) were assessed. Body mass, height, body mass index (BMI) and anthropometric measurements were used to obtain body fat percentage (BF%) and somatotype according to the Heath-Carter protocol. We found that females and males elite climbers (EC) have a significantly lower BF% and endomorphic component ( p p p

Drive for Muscularity (DM) has been shown to be a relevant construct for measuring and understanding male body image. For this reason, it is important to have reliable and valid instruments with which to measure DM, and to date no such instruments exist in Spain. This study analyzes the psychometric and structural properties of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) in a sample of Spanish adolescent males (N=212), with the aim of studying the structural validity of the scale by using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), as well as analyzing the internal consistency and construct (convergent and discriminant) and concurrent validity of the instrument. After testing three models, results indicated that the best structure was a two-dimensional model, with the factors of muscularity-oriented body image (MBI) and muscularity behavior (MB). The scale showed good internal consistency (α=.90) and adequate construct validity. Furthermore, significant associations were found between DM and increased difficulties in emotional regulation (rho=.37) and low self-esteem (rho=-.19). Findings suggest that the two-factor structure may be used when assessing drive for muscularity among adolescent males in Spain.

BACKGROUND:\ud Researchers have tested the beliefs of sportspeople and sports medicine specialists that cognitive strategies influence strength performance. Few investigators have synthesised the literature.\ud OBJECTIVES:\ud The specific objectives were to review evidence regarding (a) the cognitive strategy-strength performance relationship; (b) participant skill level as a moderator; and (c) cognitive, motivational, biomechanical/physiological, and emotional mediators.\ud METHOD:\ud Studies were sourced via electronic databases, reference lists of retrieved articles, and manual searches of relevant journals. Studies had to be randomised or counterbalanced experiments with a control group or condition, repeated measures, and a quality control score above 0.5 (out of 1). Cognitive strategies included goal setting, imagery, self-talk, preparatory arousal, and free choice. Dependent variables included maximal strength, local muscular endurance, or muscular power.\ud RESULTS:\ud Globally, cognitive strategies were reliability associated with increased strength performance (results ranged from 61 to 65 %). Results were mixed when examining the effects of specific strategies on particular dependent variables, although no intervention had an overall negative influence. Indeterminate relationships emerged regarding hypothesised mediators (except cognitive variables) and participant skill level as a moderator.\ud CONCLUSIONS:\ud Although cognitive strategies influence strength performance, there are knowledge gaps regarding specific types of strength, especially muscular power. Cognitive variables, such as concentration, show promise as possible mediators.

To comprehensively describe anthropometric characteristics of Australian junior elite rugby league players and assess potential anthropometric dissimilarities between players of varying positional groups, ethnicity (Polynesian vs. non-Polynesian) and playing level (junior vs. professional; using published data from Australian professional players).Cross-sectional study.Height, body mass, eight skinfolds, five girths and two bone breadths were measured with body fat (BF%) and somatotype calculated using population-appropriate equations.mean ± SD.This study recruited 116 junior players. Mean age, mass and BF% were 17 ± 1 y, 87.0 ± 11.6 kg and 14.0 ± 4.6% respectively. Compared to backs, forwards had greater mass (92.6 ± 12.2 vs. 80.9 ± 7.1 kg), skinfolds, girths, femur breadth, BF% (16.1 ± 4.8% vs. 11.8 ± 3.2%) (all p0.01), and were more endo- and mesomorphic, but less ectomorphic (all p0.001). Compared to other positional groups, props had greater mass, adiposity, calf girth and endomorphy, while adjustables (fullbacks, five-eighths, halfbacks, hookers) had the shortest stature (all p0.01). Polynesians exhibited greater height (181.0 ± 5.7 vs. 178.7 ± 6.3 cm), mass (90.6 ± 11.7 vs. 84.7 ± 11.1 kg), arm and calf girths, bone breadths and mesomorphy (7.6 ± 1.2 vs. 6.7 ± 1.1) than non-Polynesians (all p0.05). Juniors had lower height, mass, waist and smaller sum of skinfolds than professional players (all p0.05).Greater mass, mesomorphy, adiposity and bone size in forwards is desirable for tackling and attacking and may protect against high impact forces sustained in this position. Advantageous anthropometric attributes exhibited in Polynesian players may influence selection into junior elite rugby league teams. Anthropometric data from this study may assist other junior players and coaches with training, dietary modification and position allocation.

Judging physical attractiveness involves sight, touch, sound and smells. Where visual judgments are concerned, attentional processes may have evolved to prioritize sex-typical traits that reflect cues signaling direct or indirect (i.e. genetic) benefits. Behavioral techniques that measure response times or eye movements provide a powerful test of this assumption by directly assessing how attractiveness influences the deployment of attention. We used eye-tracking to characterize women's visual attention to men's back-posed bodies, which varied in overall fat and muscle distribution, while they judged the potential of each model for a short- or long-term relationship. We hypothesized that when judging male bodily attractiveness women would focus more on the upper body musculature of all somatotypes, as it is a signal of metabolic health, immunocompetence and underlying endocrine function. Results showed that mesomorphs (muscular men) received the highest attractiveness ratings, followed by ectomorphs (lean men) and endomorphs (heavily-set men). For eye movements, attention was evenly distributed to the upper and lower back of both ectomorphs and mesomorphs. In contrast, for endomorphs the lower back, including the waist, captured more attention over the viewing period. These patterns in visual attention were evident in the first second of viewing, suggesting that body composition is identified early in viewing and guides attention to body regions that provide salient biological information during judgments of men's bodily attractiveness.

Apolipoprotein A-II (APOA2) is one of the major constituents of high-density lipoprotein and plays a critical role in lipid metabolism and obesity. However, similar research for the bovine APOA2 gene is lacking. In this study, polymorphisms of the bovine APOA2 gene and its promoter region were detected in 1021 cows from four breeds by sequencing and PCR-RFLP methods. Totally, we detected six novel mutations which included one mutation in the promoter region, two mutations in the exons and three mutations in the introns. There were four polymorphisms within APOA2 gene were analyzed. The allele A, T, T and G frequencies of the four loci were predominant in the four breeds when in separate or combinations analysis which suggested cows with those alleles to be more adapted to the steppe environment. The association analysis indicated three SVs in Nangyang cows, two SVs in Qinchun cows and the 9 haplotypes in Nangyang cows were significantly associated with body traits (P0.05 or P0.01). The results of this study suggested the bovine APOA2 gene may be a strong candidate gene for body traits in the cattle breeding program.

The concept of Sasang Constitutional Medicine (SCM) has been in existence in Traditional Korean Medicine for more than 100 years. SCM consists of 4 different types; So-Eum (SE), So-Yang (SY), Tae-Eum (TE), and Tae-Yang (TY). In Western medicine, it is more like stratifying individuals according to phenotypic expression. It is of great importance that the Sasang constitution type be evaluated accurately and recognized by the medical communities for prevention, early diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases (CVD).From the Ansung-Ansan prospective cohort study, 10,038 participants were recruited from years 2001-2002. Of 10,038 original participants, 3022 subjects underwent Sasang Constitutional Type (SCT) evaluation. The Cox proportional hazard model was used to predict CVD during the ten year follow-up period.Of 3022 participants, SCT classified into 364 (12%) SE, 1053 (34.8%) SY, 1605 (53.1%) TE, and no TY. Three hundred seventy nine (16%) newly developed CVD during the following period, yielding 10-year cumulative incidence of 160/1000 person. The frequency of CVD within three SCT without metabolic syndrome (MetS) shows 13.4% in SE, 13.6% in SY, and 14.3% in TE, respectively (p=NS). The CVD events were significantly different among the types when MetS was present. The demographic and clinical characteristics revealed the TE group was significantly older, more obese, higher blood pressure, glucose values, and lipid profiles levels. The frequency of MetS and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) was also higher in TE type than either SE and SY types (all p0.001). The Cox proportional hazard analysis revealed age, female gender, rural residence, higher ALT level, and lower beta-cell function remain as an independent risk factor, as well as SY with MetS (RR=1.838 (95% CI 1.23-2.74), p=0.003). Furthermore, 10 year CVD survival rate was 86.4% in no MetS group, 83.4% in TE, 79.6% in SE, and 76.4% in SY all with MetS (p0.001).The findings from this study suggest MetS increases risk for CVD in certain physical conditions like SY type. Therefore, we would like to suggest that SCT is a strong indicator for CVD.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate and validate the accuracy and safety of a technique using an anterior approach for non–image-guided intra-articular injection of the hip by use of anatomic landmarks. Methods We enrolled 55 patients. Injections were performed before supine hip arthroscopy after landmarking and before application of traction. After the needle insertion, success was confirmed with an air arthrogram and by direct visualization after arthroscope insertion. Accuracy and difficulty achieving correct needle placement were correlated with age, weight, height, body mass index, body type, gender, and surgical indication, as well as femoral and pelvic morphology. Forty-five patients who underwent injection in the office were followed up separately to document injection side effects. Needle placement accuracy was correlated to patients' demographics. All statistical tests with P values were 2 sided, with the level of significance set at P Results There were 51 correct needle placements and 4 misses, yielding a 93% success rate. The most common location for needle placement was the upper medial head-neck junction. Female gender was correlated with a more difficult needle placement and misses in relation to group size ( P = .06). The reasons for misplacements of the needle were a high-riding trochanter, increased femoral version, thick adipose tissue over the landmarks, and variant of ilium morphology. Of 45 patients in the side effect study arm, 3 reported sensory changes of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve that resolved within 24 hours. Conclusions Hip injections by use of the direct anterior approach, from the intersection of the lines drawn from the anterior superior iliac spine and 1 cm distal to the tip of the greater trochanter, are safe and reproducible. Patient characteristics, such as increased subcutaneous adipose tissue or osseous anatomic variants, can lead to difficulty in placing the needle successfully. These characteristics can be predicted with the aid of physical examination and careful study of the pelvic radiographs. Level of Evidence Level IV, therapeutic case series.

Although researchers have examined the negative effects of viewing reality television (RTV) on women's body image, this research has not been extended to men. Exploring the extent to which RTV depicts men who embody the muscular ideal may enhance our understanding of the potential influence of this media genre. We explored the extent to which RTV depicted men who embodied the muscular ideal using a quantitative content analysis. Based on binomial tests, the primary male cast members of programs airing on networks popular among young adult men during the Fall 2009 broadcast season were more muscular, with lower levels of body fat, than average U.S. men. The chest-to-waist and shoulder-to-waist ratios of these cast members did not differ as a function of program type (i.e., reality drama, endurance, and romance). Young men who view RTV programs included in the present study would be exposed to an unrepresentative muscular ideal.

Recent studies have revealed that there may be perceptible cues to ovulation in humans. This study aims at extending these findings by using female faces that were shape transformed towards a late follicular (fertile) and a luteal (non-fertile) prototype. Fertile prototypes were created by averaging 25 photographs taken of females during ovulation (as determined by ovulation tests); non-fertile prototypes were created by averaging 25 photographs of the same women during the luteal phase. Twenty different (new) female faces were then shape transformed towards the luteal prototype and towards the follicular prototype in 50% and 100% steps. The two 50% transforms and the two 100% transforms were paired, resulting in stimulus pairs of two different difficulties. Thirty-six male participants were asked to choose the more attractive (Task 1), the more caring (Task 2), and the more flirtatious face (Task 3). In a final task the participants were asked to choose the woman with which the participant would have better chances to get a date (Task 4). For all tasks we found a significant preference for the follicular face. In trials with a 100% transformation towards the shape of the prototype, the preference for the follicular stimulus was significantly stronger than in trials with a 50% transformation. We conclude that subtle shape differences in faces are sufficient to trigger men's preference for a woman in her fertile cycle phase.

The psychometric properties of a Spanish version of the muscle appearance satisfaction scale (MASS; Mayville, Williamson, White, Netemeyer, & Drab, 2002) were examined using a sample of five hundred and sixty-one male weightlifters. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses suggested that the 19-item Spanish version of the MASS called the Escala de Satisfaccion Muscular (ESM), was represented by five subscales similar to the original MASS. Internal consistency of the measure was good (α = .86-.95), and various measures of construct validity indicated that the ESM may be a useful measure of Muscle Dysmorphia symptoms among Spanish speaking populations.

Viewing idealized images has been shown to reduce men's body satisfaction; however no research has examined the impact of music video clips. This was the first study to examine the effects of exposure to muscular images in music clips on men's body image, mood and cognitions. Ninety men viewed 5 min of clips containing scenery, muscular or average-looking singers, and completed pre- and posttest measures of mood and body image. Appearance schema activation was also measured. Men exposed to the muscular clips showed poorer posttest levels of anger, body and muscle tone satisfaction compared to men exposed to the scenery or average clips. No evidence of schema activation was found, although potential problems with the measure are noted. These preliminary findings suggest that even short term exposure to music clips can produce negative effects on men's body image and mood.

Limited studies have evaluated the psychometric properties of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale (MASS), a measure of muscle dysmorphia, in different cultures and languages. The aims were to examine the psychometric properties of the Hungarian version of the MASS (MASS-HU), and to investigate its relationship with self-esteem and exercise-related variables. Two independent samples of male weight lifters (ns = 289 and 43), and a sample of undergraduates (n = 240) completed the MASS, Eating Disorder Inventory, and Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. Exploratory factor analysis supported the original five-factor structure of the MASS only in the weight lifter sample. The MASS-HU had excellent scale score reliability and good test–retest reliability. The construct validity of the MASS-HU was tested with multivariate regression analyses which indicated an inverse relationship between self-esteem and muscle dysmorphia. The 18-item MASS-HU was found to be a useful measure for the assessment of muscle dysmorphia among male weight lifters.

"Fat talk" is the conversational phenomenon whereby people berate their bodies in social circles. This study assessed whether norms of fat talk differ for overweight versus average-weight women. Sixty-three women read a script depicting a fat talk situation during which an overweight or average-weight target woman engaged in positive or negative body talk. Regardless of the target's weight, participants perceived it to be more typical and less surprising if she engaged in negative body talk (fat talk) rather than positive body talk. Furthermore, fat talk from either weight group did not affect the likeability of the target, but women, overweight or of average weight, who engaged in positive talk were perceived to have more socially desirable personality characteristics.

This study investigates body esteem factors (weight-esteem and appearance-esteem) as mediators of the relationship between 'internalization of the ideal body figure' and disordered eating behaviors (restrained, emotional and external eating) in a community sample of adolescent males (n=810) and females (n=1137) from the Ontario Research on Eating and Adolescent Lifestyles (REAL) study. Mediation models were examined using a bootstrapping approach to test indirect effects and indirect contrasts. In males, weight-esteem partially mediated the relationship between muscular ideal and restrained eating; appearance-esteem partially mediated effects in the emotional and external eating regressions. In females, both weight-esteem and appearance-esteem partially mediated the relationship between thin ideal and all three forms of disordered eating; weight-esteem was a stronger mediator for restrained eating, and appearance-esteem a stronger mediator for emotional and external eating. Body esteem is important to consider for prevention and treatment of disordered eating in both genders.

Summary Objectives This study aims to evaluate the sexual dimorphism in the body composition and somatotype of Polish elite judoists and comparison with untrained subjects. Subjects and methods Twenty-two males and 12 female judoists have participated in this study. Their ages and judo experiences are respectively 23 vs. 22 years old and 12 vs. 11 years. Ten required measurements were taken to establish the individual's somatotypes (SiberHegner Machines SA, Zurich, Switzerland instruments). To compare the 165 males and 153 females untrained, abdominal skinfold thickness was measured with Skinfold Caliper. Mean height and weight, somatotype and body mass index, fat free mass index, fat mass index, and fat percentage were calculated. The two-step ratio of sexual dimorphism index (SDI) was used. Results Sixteen out of the 21 measurements and anthropometric indices showed a reduction of sexual dimorphism in judoists compared with the untrained subjects. Highest differences were found in the fat mass and fat percentage. Conversely, a very low difference of SDI was observed for height-weight ratio, ectomorphy, fat free mass percentage and calf girth. Average SDI in untrained subjects was higher than in judoists.

Although muscularity and body fat concerns are central to conceptualizing men's body image, they have not been examined together within existing structural models. This study refined the tripartite influence model (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999) by including dual body image pathways (muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction) to engagement in muscular enhancement and disordered eating behaviors, respectively, and added dating partners as a source of social influence. Latent variable structural equation modeling analyses supported this quadripartite model in 473 undergraduate men. Nonsignificant paths were trimmed and two unanticipated paths were added. Muscularity dissatisfaction and body fat dissatisfaction represented dual body image pathways to men's engagement in muscularity enhancement behaviors and disordered eating behaviors, respectively. Pressures to be mesomorphic from friends, family, media, and dating partners made unique contributions to the model. Internalization of the mesomorphic ideal, muscularity dissatisfaction, and body fat dissatisfaction played key meditational roles within the model.

Depictions of Caucasian women in the mainstream media have become increasingly thinner in size and straighter in shape. These changes may be inconsistent with the growing influence of African American beauty ideals, which research has established as more accepting of larger body sizes and more curvaceous body types than Caucasians. The present study looked at trends in the portrayal of African American women featured in JET magazine from 1953 to 2006. Beauty of the Week (BOW) images were collected and analyzed to examine body size (estimated by independent judges) and body shape (estimated by waist-to-hip ratio). We expected body sizes to increase and body shapes to become more curvaceous. Results revealed a rise in models' body size consistent with expectations, but an increase in waist-to-hip ratio, contrary to prediction. Our findings suggest that the African American feminine beauty ideal reflects both consistencies with and departures from mainstream cultural ideals.

The 150 top-selling video games were content analyzed to study representations of male bodies. Human males in the games were captured via screenshot and body parts measured. These measurements were then compared to anthropometric data drawn from a representative sample of 1120 North American men. Characters at high levels of photorealism were larger than the average American male, but these characters did not mirror the V-shaped ideal found in mainstream media. Characters at low levels of photorealism were also larger than the average American male, but these characters were so much larger that they appeared cartoonish. Idealized male characters were more likely to be found in games for children than in games for adults. Implications for cultivation theory are discussed.

Body checking includes any behavior aimed at global or specific evaluations of appearance characteristics. Men and women are believed to express these behaviors differently, possibly reflecting different socialization. However, there has been no empirical test of the impact of gender on body checking. A total of 1024 male and female college students completed two measures of body checking, the Body Checking Questionnaire and the Male Body Checking Questionnaire. Using multiple group confirmatory factor analysis, differential item functioning (DIF) was explored in a composite of these measures. Two global latent factors were identified (female and male body checking severity), and there were expected gender differences in these factors even after controlling for DIF. Ten items were found to be unbiased by gender and provide a suitable brief measure of body checking for mixed gender research. Practical applications for body checking assessment and theoretical implications are discussed.

Summary Introduction Ju-jitsu is a combat sport that combines techniques of both karate and judo. Tournaments are organized in six weight categories. Identification and classification of somatic build in top contestants practicing ju-jitsu is important for establishment of a model of champion for this discipline of professional sport. There is also no evaluation of the relationships between the sports level and technical and tactical preparation of the contestants. Objective The purpose of this study is to determine body composition, somatotype and technical diversification of both heavyweight and lightweight Polish Ju-jitsu fighters at super-elite and elite level, and consequences for coaching practice and procedural selection and individual training. Method The contestants comprised persons at both international (super-elite group, n = 12) and national level (elite group, n = 18). Individual fighting techniques were classified into nine groups, according to actions allowed during fighting: (a) in vertical position: hits with leg and hand, and arm, leg and hip throws and with the fall of the attacking opponent, (b) in horizontal position: grips, strangles, and joint locks. The variables dependent on weight category factor and level of sport achievements included age, height, weight, height-weight ratio (HWR) body mass index (BMI) and body composition (fat free mass index [FFMI], fat mass index [FMI], percent fat in body mass [%PF]), somatotype components endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy and the amount of techniques used in Ju-jitsu fight. Results The lightweight contestants revealed lower values of BMI than those of heavyweight category contestants. The same results were observed for FFMI. However, there are higher values of FMI and %PF in heavyweight category than in the lighter categories. In the range of mesomorphy component, supremacy of heavyweight contestants over lightweight contestants was observed. In the case of ectomorphy, it was the opposite. The number of techniques practiced was significantly higher in super-elite group than in elite group. Conclusions Body composition and somatotype which differentiate the players into weight categories were observed among men practicing ju-jitsu. It is necessary to strive for presentation of somatic profiles of players against the background of the people from the same country not practicing any sports. The players of higher sports level (super-elite group) practice more diversified attacks which favors domination over the opponent (elite group). Body composition and somatotype can affect selection of attack techniques preferred in fight and determine the performance level.

The aim of this study was to investigate the prefrontal activation in childhood anorexia nervosa (AN) patients when imaging symptom-provocative factors such as body type, high-calorie food, and attachment between mother and child. The prefrontal activations during each task, in terms of blood volume changes, were measured by near infrared spectroscopy. Twelve females with childhood AN (mean age, 14.4 years old) and 13 age-matched healthy female controls (mean age, 14.3 years old) participated in this study. Both groups showed increased prefrontal blood volume when viewing images of each symptom-provocative factor. Unexpectedly, there was no significant difference in the prefrontal blood volume increases between the control group and the childhood AN group when viewing images of slender and obese body types and high-calorie food. On the other hand, images of mother-child attachment resulted in significantly greater increases in prefrontal blood volume in the childhood AN group than in the control group. These results indicated that prefrontal activation in AN might be associated with imaging attachment between mother and child, but not associated with imaging body type or high-calorie food.

Little research on body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors, and the sociocultural influences on them, has been undertaken in non-Western contexts. The current study investigated these variables and the relationships between them among a sample of 529 Malaysian high school students (103 Malays, 344 Chinese and 82 Indians), who completed a set of measures in classroom settings. Chinese girls were more dissatisfied with their bodies than Chinese boys, but no gender difference was found for Malay and Indian participants. Girls were more likely to engage in behaviors to lose weight, and boys were more likely to engage in behaviors to increase muscle. The influence of sociocultural factors on body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors was limited and varied across both sex and ethnicity. Findings are discussed in relation to Western research, and it is concluded that cultural nuances need to be considered when investigating these phenomena.

This study tested the psychometric characteristics of the Body Morph Assessment version 2.0 (BMA 2.0). A sample of 563 adults composed of four groups classified by gender and ethnicity (Caucasian men and women and African-American men and women) were studied. Support for the internal consistency and test–retest reliability of the BMA 2.0 was found for both men and women. A study of convergent validity was conducted. The BMA 2.0 was found to have adequate reliability and validity. Norms were established for the BMA 2.0 estimates of current body size (CBS), ideal body size (IBS), and acceptable body size (ABS) for Caucasian and African-American men and women. In summary, the BMA 2.0 is a reliable and valid computerized measure of CBS, IBS, ABS, the CBS–IBS discrepancy (body dissatisfaction), and provides an estimate of over/underestimation of body size as compared to individuals of the same sex and body mass index.

The purpose of the current study was to operationalize the phenomenon of body deception, describe its theoretical importance, and validate its existence in an experimental paradigm. The definition of body deception includes the intentional misrepresentation of information about appearance to others. The present study examined body deception in a controlled experimental study of male and female same-sex peer groups using a series of hierarchical linear models. Ninety male and 90 female undergraduates were randomized to an experimental same-sex peer group or individual control condition. The results suggested that both men and women used body deception among peers, but men's body deception was muscularity driven whereas women's was thinness driven. Body dissatisfaction was significantly predictive of the degree of body deception used by both genders and it was significantly related to peer group membership. An integrated model for the role of body deception in body image disturbance is proposed.

This study examined biopsychosocial factors related to body dissatisfaction in young men within multivariate and moderator contexts. A female sample was included as a gender comparison. Male ( n = 111) and female ( n = 236) undergraduates filled out self-report questionnaires assessing body mass index (BMI), media influence, a history of weight-related teasing, and socially prescribed perfectionism, along with various indices of body dissatisfaction. Perceived pressure from the media was consistently related to body dissatisfaction in men whereas multiple biopsychosocial variables accounted for body dissatisfaction in women. Socially prescribed perfectionism and a history of weight teasing each moderated the relationship between BMI and male body dissatisfaction, identifying men low in body dissatisfaction. Findings indicate that applying a biopsychosocial framework to the study of body dissatisfaction in men is useful and suggest the need for including other factors, such as male peers and sports involvement, in understanding contributors to male body image.

The aim of this study was to describe the morphological characteristics of competitive female volleyball players. For this purpose, body weight and height, breadths and girths as well as skinfold thickness at various body sites were assessed in 163 elite female volleyball players (age: 23.8+/-4.7 years, years of playing: 11.5+/-4.2, hours of training per week: 11.9+/-2.9, means+/-S.D.). Seventy-nine of these players were from the A1 division and the rest from the A2 division of the Greek National League. Two-way ANOVA was used to compare the differences in these characteristics between competition level and playing position. Body height ranged from 161cm to 194cm, and the mean value (177.1+/-6.5cm) was not inferior to that of international players of similar calibre. Adiposity of these players (sum of 5 skinfolds: 51.8+/-10.2mm, percent body fat: 23.4+/-2.8) was higher than that reported in other studies in which, however, different methodology was used. Volleyball athletes of this study were mainly balanced endomorphs (3.4-2.7-2.9). The A1 division players were taller and slightly leaner with greater fat-free mass than their A2 counterparts. Significant differences were found among athletes of different playing positions which are interpreted by their varying roles and physical demands during a volleyball game. The volleyball players who play as opposites were the only subgroup of players differing between divisions; the A2 opposites had more body fat than A1 opposites. These data could be added in the international literature related to the anthropometric characteristics of competitive female volleyball players.

Although the effect of labour and physical stress on the height and weight of growing children is relatively well known, rather limited information concerning the influences of the work environment on the physique of working children and adolescents is available. The purpose of this study was to increase our knowledge of the effects of mechanical stress on the human physique via somatotype during the adolescent growth period. Anthropometric measurements of 509 male apprentices aged 13.50–18.49 years and measurements of 451 nonworking youth (control group) of the same age group were taken. The members of both groups were from the lower socioeconomic strata and had similar living conditions. The apprentices were working an average of 11 h per day in vocations requiring intense physical effort. The subjects were somatotyped using the Heath–Carter anthropometric protocol. The overall mean somatotypes were 2.3–4.4–3.3 for working adolescents, and 2.5–3.9–3.6 for the nonworking controls. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated significant differences between the groups. Working adolescents were more mesomorphic and less ectomorphic than their nonworking peers. In both groups, endomorphy decreased with age up to age 15; then remained stable for the labourers but increased for the nonworking peers. In both groups, mesomorphy was stable, but decreased with ectomorphy. These results indicate that physical stress not only causes retardation in linear growth, but also produces changes in human physique during the growth period.

The current study used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to investigate the factor structure of a revised version of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ-3) with a sample of undergraduate males. In addition to completing the SATAQ-3, participants completed various measures pertaining to body image, behavioral, and psychological constructs to examine concurrent and discriminant validity. CFA results indicated that the four factors of the SATAQ-3, Information, Pressures, Internalization-General, and Internalization-Athlete, represented the data well and better than an alternative 3-factor structure that combined the two Internalization subscales. All four factors demonstrated excellent concurrent and discriminant validity. Findings from this study support use of a slightly modified version of the SATAQ-3 with males. The present results also support the continued investigation of media influences as multidimensional constructs important to male body image.

There is general agreement that postural alignment is important in optimizing voice function. A number of articles have illuminated the way in which posture, particularly of the cervical spine, is directly related to vocal resonance and pitch control. Despite frequent involvement in muscle training, few speech pathologists have the background in exercise physiology necessary to appreciate the contribution of muscular length-tension relationships to postural alignment. The purpose of this article is to provide voice therapists with information to help them formulate appropriate recommendations for improving postural alignment. This article synthesizes information from the literature regarding the role of muscular length-tension balance in the attainment and maintenance of postural alignment. Important considerations in the assessment of muscle tension and weakness are presented along with advice regarding application to the treatment of voice-disordered patients. Concepts detailed include agonist/antagonist relationships, the biomechanics of stretching, postural assessment, and the relationship between muscle tension and muscle weakness. The role of both stretching and strength-based training is discussed. Specific exercises with emphasis on altering the alignment of the cervical and thoracic spine are presented with suggestions for their use in the clinic. There is growing understanding of the physiology behind recommendations of voice teachers and therapists to maintain optimal alignment. To effectively mediate postural misalignment, clinicians must have knowledge of the length-tension relationships between muscles. This understanding will lead to better interventions for postural alignment.

Background Osteoporosis is a systemic and metabolic skeletal disease characterized by reduced bone mass, changes in microarchitecture, and consequential increased fracture risk. Previous reports described a relationship between bone content with fat mass and lean body mass. In this study, we assessed osteoporosis risk factors and the association with somatotypes in males aged 45–65 years. Methods Standard axial spine and proximal femur bone mineral density (BMD) were measured using dual x-ray (DXA) absorptiometry in 70 healthy men. Heath-Carter procedure was followed to assess individual's somatotype. Results All body types were grouped as endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy. Moderate to weak correlations were found between lumbar BMD with endomorphy and mesomorphy. Negative correlation was found between lumbar BMD and ectomorphy. Total femur BMD correlated positively with endomorphy and mesomorphy and negatively correlated with ectomorphy. Body mass index correlated weakly with lumbar, femur neck, and total femur BMD. Multiple regression analysis revealed that endomorphy was significantly related to BMD measurements at lumbar spine (standardized coefficient, SC=0.51, p = 0.001), femur neck (SC = 0.52, p = 0.001), and total femur BMD (SC = 0.41, p = 0.01). Lumbar BMD and age, hand grip strength, smoking, tea and coffee consumption, calorie expenditure, calcium intake, PTH, albumin, total protein, sex hormone-binding globulin, and testosterone were not significantly correlated. Conclusions Endomorphy seems related to high BMD values at the lumbar spine and the proximal femur in middle-aged men. Somatotype together with daily calorie expenditure may be taken into account when assessing risk factors for male osteoporosis.

Sexual dimorphism in human body composition is evident from fetal life, but emerges primarily during puberty. At birth, males have a similar fat mass to females but are longer and have greater lean mass. Such differences remain detectable during childhood; however, females enter puberty earlier and undergo a more rapid pubertal transition, whereas boys have a substantially longer growth period. After adjusting for dimorphism in size (height), adult males have greater total lean mass and mineral mass, and a lower fat mass than females. These whole-body differences are complemented by major differences in tissue distribution. Adult males have greater arm muscle mass, larger and stronger bones, and reduced limb fat, but a similar degree of central abdominal fat. Females have a more peripheral distribution of fat in early adulthood; however, greater parity and the menopause both induce a more android fat distribution with increasing age. Sex differences in body composition are primarily attributable to the action of sex steroid hormones, which drive the dimorphisms during pubertal development. Oestrogen is important not only in body fat distribution but also in the female pattern of bone development that predisposes to a greater female risk of osteoporosis in old age. Disorders of sex development are associated with significant abnormalities of body composition, attributable largely to their impact on mechanisms of hormonal regulation.

The "Body Image and Body Change Inventory Questionnaire" was administered to 958 students, aged 8.00-13.99 years, to determine the types of strategies used by children to accomplish changes in body size/shape. Each individual strategy score was compared for each gender and with respect to age. The girls' score for food restrictive practices was significantly higher than for other body change strategies. For the boys, the score for the use of food and exercise strategies to increase muscle size was significantly higher than all other practices except exercise strategies to increase body size. Both boys and girls reported the lowest scores for food and exercise strategies to increase body weight. The variance explained by age was small and not considered biologically significant. While the findings do not demonstrate a relationship between desire to change body size/shape and age, weight concerns should not be overlooked, as both genders seem concerned with keeping their body weight low. The different practices used by each gender demonstrate that different body image ideals hold for boys and girls.

An 11-year-old boy had a history of easy bruising and poorly healing wounds since infancy and severe, early-onset periodontitis. He also exhibited mild hypermobility of the small joints of the hands, long limbs with striking arachnodactyly, and a triangular face with delicate features. Analysis of type I and type III collagens revealed no abnormalities. These findings were consistent with a diagnosis of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type VIII (EDS-VIII), an autosomal dominant connective tissue disorder that was recently mapped to chromosome 12q13. We draw attention to the clinical features that typify EDS-VIII, including extensive pretibial bruising, a marfanoid body habitus, and characteristic facies, as well as childhood onset of progressive periodontal disease.

The aim of this large, cross-sectional study was to describe the age- and sex-related variations of the somatotype, employing Heath and Carter's method, in a Chuvasha population residing in a rural region in central Russia. The investigated sample included 802 males aged 18-89 years (mean 46.9) and 738 females aged 18-90 years (mean 48.6). We evaluated the age and sex differences by one-way ANOVA with somatotype components as dependent variables and sex or age groups as grouping variables. Sex differences of somatotypes appear to be the strongest for endomorphy, with generally higher values in women. Endomorphy in males remained virtually unchanged after 30 years of age, but endomorphy in females kept increasing up to the 6th decade, and then subsequently decreased. Virtually no differences were noted in mesomorphy and a very small difference in ectomorphy between males and females aged 18-30 years. A reduction of sexual dimorphism in all somatotype components after age 70 was also observed. The largest difference of all somatotype components appeared between age groups 18-30 and 31-40 years. Thereafter, somatotypes remained practically unchanged. Mesomorphy continued to increase until the 5th decade in both sexes, while in females, endomorphy continuously increased until their 6th decade. In the 7th and 8th decades, a decrease in mean values was observed. Mesomorphy and ectomorphy showed opposite age-related trends. Results of our study clearly suggest that in physique investigations, the somatotypes need to be studied in each sex separately, and in studies of young people, they need also to be adjusted to age.

The systematic patterns in human adult physical stature are explored in connection with Wolf's relative sunspot numbers. This topic should be of interest to economists, physicians as well as physicists. There is a need for more than a check of any similarity of curves in variables approximating the economy and human stature and for more than the application of mathematical models, as done herein. Ours is at best a halting step at one frequency, presented only to document the challenge of a transdisciplinary approach to multifrequency intermodulations of hosts of variables, yet to be untangled. The circumstance that at birth some decisions concerning adult stature are already made is challenging. The signature of the environment in terms of the about 21-year Hale bipolarity cycle of Wolf's relative sunspot numbers found in adult soldiers shows that the association at birth is not a transient one, even if other evidence beyond our scope herein points to the possibility that observations on presumably healthy soldiers can be extrapolated to abnormal growth. Nonetheless, the task for those concerned with short stature could become preventive if the sensitive stages when growth may be inhibited by the environment could be found, as well as means to shield from or counter the undesirable effects.

The treatment of the inguinal lymph nodes with radiotherapy is strongly influenced by the body habitus of the patient. The effect of 7 radiotherapy techniques on femoral head doses was studied. Three female patients of differing body habitus (ectomorph, mesomorph, endomorph) were selected. Radiation fields included the pelvis and contiguous inguinal regions and were representative of fields used in the treatment of cancers of the lower pelvis. Seven treatment techniques were compared. In the ectomorph and mesomorph, normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) for the femoral heads was lowest with use of anteroposterior (AP) and modified posteroanterior (PA) field with inguinal electron field supplements (technique 1). In the endomorph, NTCP was lowest with use of AP and modified PA field without electron field supplements (technique 2) or a 4-field approach (technique 6). Technique 1 for ectomorphs and mesomorphs and techniques 2 and 6 for endomorphs were optimal techniques for providing relatively homogeneous dose distributions within the target area while minimizing the dose to the femoral heads.

Canoe and kayak paddlers (n= 50 M & 20 F) who competed in the sprint events at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney were measured on a battery of 38 anthropometry dimensions prior to competition. The ensuing analysis aimed to identify common physical characteristics that provide these elite paddlers with a competitive advantage. This study demonstrated that participants in Olympic sprint paddling events can be considered homogeneous in shape and physical size; male and female paddlers have SAMs of 1.1 and 1.0 respectively. Compared to other athlete groups, the variance in stature and body mass of paddlers is generally low. Whilst sprint paddlers are not athletes with extreme proportionality profiles, they do possess unique characteristics not commonly observed in the general population. These include a lean body composition (Phantom z-scores for skinfolds range from −1.5 to −2.5 for most sites) with proportionally large upper body girths (z-scores > +1.0 for arm and chest girths), and narrow hips (for males). The morphology of elite paddlers appears to have altered during the past 25 years toward a more compact, robust physique. This trend is especially noticeable for the female competitors.

Summary: Objective. Voice quality provides information about the anatomical characteristics of the speaker. The patterns of somatotype and body composition can provide essential knowledge to characterize the individuality of voice quality. The aim of this study was to verify if there were significant differences in somatotype and body composition between normal and dysphonic speakers. Study Design. Cross-sectional study. Methods. Anthropometric measurements were taken of a sample of 72 adult participants (40 normal speakers and 32 dysphonic speakers) according to International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry standards, which allowed the calculation of endomorphism, mesomorphism, ectomorphism components, body density, body mass index, fat mass, percentage fat, and fat-free mass. Perception and acoustic evaluations as well as nasoendoscopy were used to assign speakers into normal or dysphonic groups. Results. There were no significant differences between normal and dysphonic speakers in the mean somatotype attitudinal distance and somatotype dispersion distance (in spite of marginally significant differences [P < 0.10] in somatotype attitudinal distance and somatotype dispersion distance between groups) and in the mean vector of the somatotype components. Furthermore, no significant differences were found between groups concerning the mean of percentage fat, fat mass, fat-free mass, body density, and body mass index after controlling by sex. Conclusion. The findings suggested no significant differences in the somatotype and body composition variables, between normal and dysphonic speakers.

Over the last two decades an increasing amount of research has begun to examine the issue of eating disorders in athletes. While a number of studies in this area have been published, the results have not been able to clarify the nature of the relationship between athletic involvement and eating problems. This review critically evaluates existing studies of eating disorders in athletes, highlighting various methodological limitations. Studies are grouped under three main headings: uncontrolled studies; controlled studies; and studies comparing athletes with different body type requirements. A fourth section of the paper evaluates studies which have addressed the issue of gender differences in eating disorders among athletes. Suggestions are made for guidelines that will improve future research in this area.