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The socio-economic factor analyses by using the Logit and Probit model have the limitation of representing random taste variation for the unobserved factors and the issues of temporally correlated errors respectively. In socio-economic factor analysis, the observed data are essential in the random distribution for the adequate representation of the random components associated with various factors and lead to poor prediction in the case of the Logit and Probit model. In this work, Extra- trees classifier machine learning model based socio-economic factors selection has been used and found capable to find out the socio-economic factors that contain relevant information to the target variable agricultural productivity. In addition to this, the voting classifiers ensemble learning approach is used for the prediction of agricultural productivity of respondents (farmers) from their socio-economic profiles. This proposed work has been evaluated by using the test case of analyzing the socio-economic factors of the farmers affecting agricultural productivity in Sambalpur District, in Odisha State, India. In this study, the farmers’ socio-economic data are collected by using structured interviews through questionnaires that are in line with standard Participatory Rural Appraisal. It is found that, the proposed approach of socio-economic factor identification is found efficient for finding the relationships between socio-economic factors and agricultural productivity and the proposed ensemble learning-based approach is efficient in terms of agricultural productivity prediction.

Rural households have established various informal strategies to cope with unanticipated shocks. These existing coping strategies are receiving renewed interest, particularly in the context of climate change and in terms of the role they do, and can play, in enhancing households' adaptive capacity. An improved understanding of these strategies, and the factors that influence their application, may support the design of locally relevant adaptation strategies. We explored the nature and prevalence of unanticipated shocks, including natural hazards, experienced by households in two villages in Venda, South Africa, with the villages selected, in part, because of notable differences in precipitation. We considered the influence of shock type, and household- and location-specific characteristics, on the use of various household-level coping strategies. We report on semi-structured interviews, administered to 170 randomly selected households, and a participatory rural appraisal. Almost 90% of households reported the experience of at least one unanticipated shock over a prescribed 5-year period, with natural hazards reported by 42%. The type of shock experienced and various household-level characteristics, such as households' access to human and financial capital, influences households' coping response. Households' access to natural and social capital allowed for the protection of ex-ante coping options. Overall, our findings indicate that when possible, households actively manage their coping strategy portfolio, both in response to the shock experienced and in anticipation of future shocks. Generally, households' informal, ex-post coping options appear to be insufficiently robust for the covariate nature of natural hazards, suggesting the need for interventions that support households’ existing coping portfolio.

Goat pox (GTP) is a major transboundary disease of sheep and goats caused by GTP virus (GTPV) leading to significant economic losses in many regions of Africa, the Middle East and Asia where the disease is present. In this study, participatory rural appraisal techniques and active disease follow-up were used to investigate suspected GTP outbreaks in Kanam Local Government Area, North Central Nigeria to study the epidemiology and determine the financial impact of the disease amongst sheep and goats farmers. Skin scabs were collected from goats with nodular pox-like lesions during field observation. All the respondents that participated in this study confirmed previous outbreaks of goat pox in their flock and only 33% of them had in the past sought veterinary services to manage the disease medically. Morbidity and mortality rates were determined to be 47% and 33%, respectively with mortality rates relatively higher in younger animals. From figures given by respondents, the annual cost of treating the disease ranged from 538 to 1,307 USD; the annual losses due to mortality was estimated to be 2,730 USD and the annual financial losses estimated to be 6,455USD. GTPV was detected in twenty percent (2/10) of the samples analyzed using Real time polymerase chain reaction, confirming GTP in the study area. Findings of this study reaffirm that participatory rural appraisal is a reliable investigative tool to determine incidence of livestock diseases.

Semi-arid rangeland pastoral areas have been affected by diverse pressures; livestock diseases, human-wildlife conflicts, droughts and resource scarcity as a result of fragmented landscapes that constrain pastoral livelihoods. In Botswana, pastoralists' adaptations remain insufficiently documented. Adaptation strategies are responses to livelihood constraints and if mainstreamed into development programmes can counter negative impacts arising from ecosystem deterioration. Using iterative participatory rural appraisal methods, this study examines adaptation strategies that pastoral societies in Ngamiland, Botswana have used to cope with pressures in their pastoral socio-ecological system. Findings show a move towards mixed and spatially varied livelihood strategies. Mixed agro-pastoral farming, intensification of flood recession farming, fishing and a network of self-help groups have developed over the last few decades of significant policy and environmental change. Pastoralists have become more sedentary with increases in petty trade and higher dependency on social welfare programmes. As the ability to adapt has positive attributes for livelihood sustainability and resilience, there is a need for practical initiatives that improve pastoralists' adaptive capacity, such as reforming pastoralists' institutions and expanding infrastructural development in pastoral areas so as to enable access to markets. These also include the need to share insights more widely across the district, nationally and regionally.

Bangladesh is highly disaster-prone, with drought being a major hazard which significantly impacts water, food, health, livelihoods, and migration. In seeking to reduce drought vulnerabilities and impacts while improving responses, existing literature pays limited attention to community-level views and actions. This paper aims to contribute to filling in this gap by examining how an indigenous group, the Santal in Bangladesh’s northwest, responds to drought through local strategies related to water, food, and migration which in turn impact health and livelihoods. A combination of quantitative data through a household survey and qualitative data through participatory rural appraisal is used. The results suggest that the Santal people have developed and applied varied mechanisms for themselves to respond to drought. The categories of responses found are water collection and storage, crop and livestock selection, and migration. These responses might not be enough to deal with continuing droughts, yielding lessons for Bangladesh and beyond.

The study attempted to develop an energy access index (EAI) for forest fringe villages of Madhya Pradesh, India, based on the numerical score of 0–100 considering all major dimensions. A total of ten indicators were identified for developing EAI based on the review of the literature and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) with forest fringe communities. Furthermore, the relevance and weight to identified indicators were also assigned by the communities through PRAs, which was followed by experts review, reliability, validity and pilot testing. The index was applied to measure energy access of 325 households in 29 forest fringe villages of Hoshangabad and Mandla districts of Madhya Pradesh, India. The results suggested that type of occupation, economic conditions and education are the determining factors towards energy access in the forest fringe villages. The dimension-wise analysis of index shows that all the four aspects of energy usage (i.e., Cooking, House Lighting, Agriculture and Transport) must be addressed simultaneously to increase energy access.

Despite the increasing interest of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework in the field of international development and in academia and the recent call for the use of mixed-methods approach, there has been little analysis that brings together qualitative and quantitative methods over a large geographical extent. Based on findings from participatory rural appraisals during which participants identified the key assets needed to achieve their livelihoods, this paper argues that common-pool resources (community capitals) should be differentiated from private goods (household capitals) as they operate under different dynamics of decision-making and management. We then create quantitative indicators that can be mapped across a large geographical extent by using data derived from national census and satellite sensors. Spatial patterns and differentials in access to livelihood capitals across the case study are examined and the associations that exist between household capitals, between community capitals, and between both are quantified. The results demonstrate that household physical capital is positively associated with household financial and social capitals but negatively associated with household natural capital, supporting the hypothesis that households trade their natural assets to cope with shocks. It is also shown that proximity to main axes of communication increases access to village amenities but decreases access to natural resources, while remoteness increases household human capital but decreases household physical and financial capitals. Such a cross-scale study adds to the understanding of the question of scale regarding rural livelihoods and community development, which could act as a bridge between the implementation of policy programmes (often targeted at the community level) and their expected outcomes (often targeted at the household level).

Community-based initiatives with a double objective of improving rural livelihoods and conserving forest resources face the challenge of balancing the two objectives without creating trade-offs. Our study investigates the socio-economic performance of a community-based initiative that uses cooperative-driven organic certification of honey producers in Mwingi, Eastern Kenya, to improve livelihoods and acacia woodland management. Data were collected through a household survey of 303 beekeepers from 38 organic certified and 16 non-certified beekeeper groups. More data were collected using key informant interviews, informal conversations, participant observation, participatory rural appraisal, internal document reviews and secondary sources. The survey included questions regarding beekeepers' livelihood activities, organisation involvement, quantity of honey produced and sold, net honey income and welfare perceptions after certification (2015) and before certification (2008), retrospectively. The results showed minimal to no significant impacts of certification on households' incomes, honey quantity or sales prices, as the general development, though positive, followed that of the non-certified households. The lack of impacts stemmed from failure to monitor and technical backstopping of certified beekeepers, a poor cooperative management and mistrust among the members and Mwingi organic cooperative board. The board mainly bought honey from a non-certified middleman thereby undermining the Mwingi organic cooperative's values as well as their own potential niche market. On a positive note, the cooperative's honey market place, receiving customers from afar, has the potential to support the development of a niche organic market outlet. However, this requires reconnection of the cooperative to its members, trust rebuilding and transparent management of the cooperative. The study exemplifies a case of community-based livelihoods-conservation initiative which did not take local community capacity development and more general long-term project sustainability into consideration.

Spate Irrigation represents the main source of livelihood for rural population of many communities living in arid and semi-arid areas of the world. The area of Raya Valley (Ethiopia), is one such example that is used here to analyse the importance of participatory approach in making this irrigation technique sustainable, effective and durable. Spate irrigation development projects realised in Raya Valley during the last twenty years led to a partial failure, due to the low involvement of local farmers who have experience of the local environment and who have been practising the techniques from centuries. This paper describes the implementation of a participatory methodology, based on the integration of Participatory Rural Appraisal and Participatory Design, for the design of effective improvements in a traditional spate irrigation system in Raya Valley. Water is harvested from seasonal floods of wadis (ephemeral rivers) using diversion bunds made by local materials or concrete. Farmers’ participation allowed to defining gabions as a suitable solution and to realise a technical design of improved structures. The design of an improved diversion structure and a gabion wall against bank erosion was completed. The structures resulted in line with operation and maintenance strategy and with traditional spate irrigation management. New insights from local farmers knowledge, to be considered for future spate irrigation development projects, are analysed and presented.

Although decades of research show long-duration pigeon peas (PPs) as a best-bet technology that enhances nutrition, soil fertility, crop diversification, food security, climate-change resilience, agroecological sustainability, and incomes of resource-poor smallholder farmers in Saharan Africa (SSA), PP adoption remains low. This exploratory qualitative study examines obstacles to PP adoption and their relative importance, strategies used to protect PPs from livestock damage, and the conditions that shape the emergence and effectiveness of Community Based Livestock Management (CBLM) arrangements to prevent PP damage. We conducted focus group discussions, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), and key-informant interviews in five communities at different levels and duration of PP adoption, and used theoretical insights from agrarian political economy. Livestock damage was the biggest obstacle to PP growing in new PP sites; poor markets and production factors dominated in the established sites. Individual crop-protection strategies were often time-consuming, costly, and/or ineffective. While chief-based livestock-management systems protected all crops satisfactorily during the rainy season, they were insufficient to protect PPs during the dry season. CBLM arrangements controlled livestock damage and protected PP relatively effectively throughout the year. Implemented only at the relatively established PP-growing sites, CBLM arrangements were most effective at the site (Mpokwa) where PP prices were good and markets reliable, PP was the top or major cash crop, PP growers were powerful and in the majority, and institutions pre-existed for use in CBLM. The findings lead to the following hypothesis: smallholder farmers are likely to invest time and energy in collective livestock-management approaches to prevent damage to pigeon peas when expected economic benefits of adoption exceed perceived costs for most growers, mediated by socioeconomic differentiation and power relations among major stakeholders. Future research should empirically examine determinants of CBLM emergence for PP protection and scale-up.

In this study, a conceptual model of resource symbiosis (RSM) of an Indian village was developed, by leveraging the concept of bricolage, to aid in sustainable livelihood generation. This novel RSM expands as a co-management model for a rural community in resource-constrained environments to manage its resources efficiently in collaboration with local governments. Avenues for sustainable livelihood generation was assessed through household surveys and resource mapping of the village. A mixed-mode research method was adopted through participatory rural appraisal activities for involving local people and their practices in the design philosophy of RSM. Problem identification and ranking through personal and collective interviews of the villagers formed a core basis for the livelihood assessment. It enabled the internalisation of normative and idiosyncratic linkages for resource symbiosis. These linkages were interconnected through community participation, which set the boundary conditions for RSM. Results show that RSM for the study village could foster inclusive growth in two ways: first, by creating scope for efficient resource utilisation through the establishment of an oil mill, a biogas plant and a milk processing unit; and, second, by creating an entrepreneurial ecosystem based on village's self-sufficiency and market demand by empowering local entrepreneurs. Additionally, RSM could leverage local governing bodies to connect with private investors and policymakers to enable fast-track implementation of the livelihood generation schemes of the government.

Artisanal fisheries for relatively sessile benthic organisms have become key test cases for developing and testing sustainability policies, as they can address challenges, such as limited enforcement capacity or uncertainty in biological information, by applying area and economics-based management and research methods that are difficult for highly mobile species. We use results from a Participatory Rural Appraisal to analyze the evolution of governance of oyster fisheries along the coast of Nayarit, Mexico, within a community management effort led by local fishers, and highlight key factors in success (and challenges) that are relevant for similar contexts in other regions. We particularly focus on the dynamics of local management, the identification of problems and solutions by fishers, and the integration of community management with the various stakeholders and institutions that participate in formal governance frameworks. These actions have led to self-imposed area and seasonal rotation of harvest to maximize per-unit value, with independent information showing concurrent increases in local oyster abundance and size. Fishers identified lack of enforcement capacity as a main barrier to sustainability, yet were eager to engage with relevant institutions to fill these gaps and continue community-led management that leverages their social cohesion, low production costs, and empirical knowledge of local markets to increase landed value while minimizing overfishing.

In response to attempts to establish unsustainable projects (fracking and hydroelectric plants) in an indigenous community in the Mexican humid tropics, this study aims to empower its citizenry using knowledge about the local biophysical and social environment and its associated problems, raising awareness of how to help solve these problems, and actively working towards their solution. Action Research and Community Problem-Solving was used to design a participatory rural appraisal workshop to analyze the situation from a cultural, biological and legal perspective in order to promote sustainable development on a human scale. The results of this research show that the Totonac community in the municipality of Huehuetla has deep knowledge about their environment and a close relationship with the land and the natural world. Despite this biological and cultural wealth, there are problems with disturbance and marginalization in the region, with a big part of the problem being a lack of autonomy in the community's management of its own resources. The final outcome of the workshops was a community action plan that managed to stop the implementation of development projects that threatened the native culture and its biocultural heritage. The educational model proposed proved to be useful in empowering the citizenry to confront the development of unsustainable projects. It also provided insight as to the formation of a new social base in which coexistence between indigenous and non-indigenous people is possible.

In spite of their economic and ecological significance, mangroves in most coastal communities, including Ramsar sites in Ghana have witnessed unprecedented exploitation, leading to degradation of the ecosystem. In the face of this degradation, several restoration and conservation interventions have been implemented by both government and civil society organizations in collaboration with the communities. However, these efforts directed at mangrove conservation and restoration in the Songor and Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar sites have largely failed to improve the conservation and sustainable use of mangroves, because key issues relating to access, ownership regimes and land tenure are often overlooked. The study therefore focused exclusively on exploring these governance issues and how they influence the sustainable conservation and utilization of mangroves in the two Ramsar sites. Eleven communities from the Sangor Ramsar site and the Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar site were involved in the study. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools such as key informant interviews, focus group discussions and direct observations, as well as questionnaires were employed in generating data on ownership regimes and how they influence the management and conservation of mangroves. The results showed that the existing ownership regime of mangrove resources has a direct bearing on the effectiveness of mangrove conservation and utilization. While mangroves under individual ownership dominated at Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar site, family owned mangroves dominated the Songor Ramsar site. Most of the existing mangrove ownership regimes (community, clan or family lands) in the area allow access to the people to exploit mangrove resources indiscriminately without restrictions/regulations which results in over exploitation and degradation. Given the weakness of effective governance regimes and inadequacy of a formal legal framework governing mangroves in the Ramsar sites, a collaborative effort between the Forestry Commission and the communities or individually owned mangrove areas that “formalizes” mangrove management present the best opportunity to regulate access and exploitation of the mangroves at the Songor and Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar sites, by providing legal backing to the community governance arrangements for sustainable conservation and restoration efforts.

This study aims at identifying and evaluating the distinct social perspectives of stakeholders regarding the agro-ecosystem services (AESs) at different scales in Kyrenia Region of Northern Cyprus. To do so, the major objectives of the study were (i) to elicit the shared stakeholders' perspectives of AESs and (ii) to record the agro-ecosystem plant biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge as a provider of AESs. The method of the study consisted of several parts: to design a conceptual framework for the assessment of AESs; to identify the typology of AESs, and to employ qualitative (Participatory Rural Appraisal e.g. focus groups and field surveys) and quantitative (Q-Methodology) research methods to collect and evaluate the relevant data. The first stage of the Q-methodology was to conduct 8 focus groups and field surveys (n: 80), which helped to collect the qualitative data on the agro-ecosystem plant biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge. Subsequently, the Q-method was applied to collect the quantitative data on the stakeholders’ perspectives of AESs. The Q-participants ranked a total of 48 Q-statements into a forced quasi-normal distribution in 11 categories (from +5 to −5). The relevant data were analysed by performing the Q-factor analysis. The results revealed that the stakeholders hold three prominent social perspectives (utilitarian, bequest-science, and heritage-existence), which display the landscape social values of AESs. The relevant assessment showed that the agro-ecosystems are mostly valued for their cultural services delivered. Assessment of the qualitative data elicited that the stakeholders collect 21 wild edible plants and 2 mushroom species for several purposes (e.g. food and income generation) from the natural areas located within and around agro-ecosystems. The relevant traditional knowledge demonstrates the natural resource social values of AESs. Consequently, the landscape and natural social values of AESs are important cultural values and also guiding principles for the sustainable conservation and management of agro-biodiversity, agricultural landscapes, and agro-ecosystems in Kyrenia Region and elsewhere.

With the rapid urbanization and population growth, the demand for vegetables is increasing day by day resulting in increased cultivation area and production at the expenses of soil fertility. This study aims to assess soil management practices adopted by commercial vegetable farmers in changing socioeconomic contexts in Bhundrung village, Makawanpur. Participatory rural appraisal tools; Household Questionnaire survey, Focus group discussion, Key informant interview and expert consultation were used for data collection. Most farmers use farmyard manure (FYM) and chemical fertilizer (urea, potash and di-ammonium phosphate) for maintaining soil fertility. Application of farmyard manure is decreasing, due to large farm size but less number of livestock. It has resulted in the scenario of injudicious supply of chemical fertilizers with hope of increment in production. Lack of knowledge on dose, handling and disposal of fertilizer and pesticides threatened degradation of soil and water quality in and outside the farm. In the changing socioeconomic context, farmers practice joint decision making in laborious activities like nursery bed preparation, field preparation, manure mixing, intercultural operation whereas in technology and direct money related activities were decided by male members. This study recommends there is a need for effective extension services for sustainable soil fertility management, finance and market access for economic benefits and gender friendly environment and technology for commercial vegetable farming.

Although numerous studies have been conducted on the relationship between livelihood assets and strategies, only a few quantitative studies exist on the topic for anti-poverty policies with regard to the Tibetan Plateau. This study investigated 357 households in the upper reaches of the Dadu River watershed in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau, China, using the participatory rural appraisal method. Then, applying a multinomial logistic regression model, we quantitatively analyzed the relationship between livelihood assets and livelihood strategies, the findings of which have implications for local agricultural policy interventions. The preliminary results indicate that of the four classifications of livelihood strategies used in this study, the main livelihood strategy is that of the non-farming-dependent household type (i.e., Type III in our study) that combines agricultural and non-farm activities or practices self-employment for wages. There are significant differences in the livelihood assets owned by households with different livelihood strategies. Human, natural, and financial assets have significant influences on livelihood strategies, and the choice of livelihood strategy varies by livelihood assets. Further, with improvements in household labor capacity and cash income per capita, the livelihood strategies of non-agricultural and non-farming households may shift away from agriculture, while an increase in farmland cultivated per capita, cash income per capita, and household labor capacity may encourage households to adopt agriculture-dependent livelihood strategies. These findings contribute to research on livelihood and related development strategies and anti-poverty policies in not only the Eastern Tibetan Plateau but also other regions with similar livelihood strategies.

Neonatal lamb mortality constitutes a significant economic cost and is an important welfare challenge. Despite compelling evidence for reduction strategies and cost benefits associated with them, there has been no documented reduction in mortality since the 1970’s. We aimed to evaluate whether a knowledge exchange solution could be used to define farm specific loss risks accurately. This was done by training farmers how to examine neonatal lambs post-mortem to record and interpret common causes of mortality by following a basic framework. We used participatory rural appraisal to assess some of the existing challenges to reducing lamb mortality. When considering outcomes for specific post mortem questions, there was 87.5% agreement between veterinary and farmer answers and 82.3% of farmer diagnoses (n = 96) agreed with the veterinary conclusions. When merged with farmer performed post-mortems, farm specific mortality pie-charts were developed to highlight the variation between flocks and the necessity for flock specific advice. Common challenges to reducing lamb loss included level of labour, skill set of labour, communication within teams and whether farmers generally considered post-mortems to be a valuable tool. We consider that farmer post-mortems of lambs could be a tool for the veterinary-farmer team, facilitating the communication of farm specific advice and empowering farmers to effect positive change.

Approaches that aim to identify and prioritize locally appropriate climate smart agriculture (CSA) technologies will need to address the context-specific multi-dimensional complexity in agricultural systems. The climate smart agriculture rapid appraisal (CSA-RA) is a mixed method approach that draws on participatory bottom-up, qualitative, and quantitative tools to assess the heterogeneity of local contexts, and prioritize context-specific CSA options. This is an imperative if countries are to respond to the COP21 agreement and meet their intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs). The CSA-RA is designed to assess biophysical including climatic, socio-cultural, economic and technological characteristics at the household, farm and community/regional level. The CSA-RA employs gender-disaggregated methods, including gender differences in perceptions of climate change and its impacts. The CSA-RA combines common participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and rapid rural appraisal (RRA) tools into one methodology, that disaggregates the gender dimension, and includes resource mapping; climate calendars; historical calendars; cropping calendars; organization mapping; transect walks; key informant interviews; farmer interviews; and pairwise ranking matrix. The tool collects qualitative and quantitative data from various stakeholders (farmers, local leaders, researchers, local-level agricultural experts, private sector actors, donor organizations, and policy implementers), allowing expansive analysis, triangulation and validation. Application of the CSA-RA in Tanzania and Uganda reveals heterogeneity across the sites in terms of vulnerability, constraints and CSA priorities among different social groups (gender) and agro-ecological zones. Thus, the CSA-RA allows stakeholders to simultaneously take into account biophysical and socio-economic aspects to target and implement CSA.

Farmers are those who daily supervise and manage rural areas, but still their collaborations with those institutions entitled to decide the transformation of these territories are not managed properly. The experiences of participatory processes with the involvement of farmers are analyzed in many agricultural studies. A systematic review has allowed us to analyse experiences related to 35 participation paths aimed at rural regions’ development. The analysis has been made on the basis of 14 variables describing the path followed and its purpose, the agricultural holding involved and the areas surveyed. The work has the objectives to identify some strengths and weaknesses in the involvement of farmers in decision-making and the strengths and weaknesses of the processes themselves. The review has shown that too often in participatory processes farmers are considered only as a source of information to be used by researchers rather than as active participants in the choices for the protection, management and transformation of the rural territory. An effective participatory rural appraisal requires greater empowerment of farmers. In general, compared to the methods and tools used, farmers are wary of paths that are too complex and prefer the use of low-tech tools. This result can be attributed to the farmers’ demand of direct contact with the researchers to build trust and also to the average age of European farmers, which is pretty high. In participation contexts, it is not possible to establish standardized methods and tools, because each process should be tailored for the community that expresses it. Nevertheless, the work has highlighted the need to establish some minimum principles to avoid considering unsuccessful some participation paths which, in reality, have been only scarcely participated. In the work, these principles have been presented through the development of key questions, to which those who design the path for an effective engagement of agricultural stakeholder must respond: representativeness, empowerment, empirical knowledge, relationships, group type, numerosity and involvement stage.

The surge in large-scale land acquisitions (LSLAs) has captured the attention of activists, development practitioners, policy makers and academics. Supported for food security, biofuels, financial investments, eco-tourism etc., opponents of LSLAs raise concerns regarding the fate of local communities suffering from (potential) land dispossession and involuntary displacements, environmental degradation, diminished local food security and sovereignty and casualisation of farm workers. Scholarly efforts to understand socio-economic and environmental impacts of LSLAs grapple with: (i) methodological challenges related to lack of (reliable) baseline data; and (ii) implementation of LSLA deals - LSLAs can be complex operations; cancelled or abandoned, and reshaped by diverse biophysical, socio-cultural and political landscapes in which they unfold. Few attempts have been made to understand how local communities cope with failed LSLA deals. Addressing this gap, this paper uses participatory rural appraisal methods to examine coping strategies of local communities in Nansanga farm block, a government of Zambia-led LSLA program. Overall, our fieldwork shows Nansanga is a deal in limbo of development: state-funded infrastructure has crumbled, and many private investors have not developed the land they bought. Instead, mining and tobacco companies have emerged as important economic players, filling the development vacuum created by the government’s absence in Nansanga. As immigration for casual mining jobs increases, there is land dispossession in some places, and curtailed access to dambos that used to be communal under customary land tenure. Our findings question the possibility of LSLA deals to contribute to wealth creation for local people. Our findings suggest pre-existing socio-economic status and household labour are key to understanding coping strategies of local people in Nansanga. High wealth households are more likely to take advantage of emerging opportunities from (failed) LSLA deals than low wealth households. Finally, LSLA deals transform resource use and therefore livelihoods - reinforcing pre-existing socio-economic community conditions.

An analysis of the dynamics of access to resources is important for a fuller understanding of rural livelihoods especially with changing times and technology. This paper uses benefits from charcoal production and trade in the forest savanna transition zone of Ghana as a case to explore the dynamics of access in time and space and the mechanisms various social actors apply in order to benefit. The study applies an analytical framework combining the revised property rights framework with “A Theory of Access”. Participatory rural appraisal methods, stakeholder meetings, document reviews and interviews were conducted with social actors along the charcoal commodity chain in Ghana. The paper shows that the ability to benefit from charcoal is more dependent on property than other mechanisms of access, and both customary and statutory institutions are involved in mediating access to charcoal in the area. The realization of economic benefits of charcoal led to a contestation between chiefs and family heads over rights to trees on family lands in some communities and changes in the mode of payment for trees used in producing charcoal. Scarcity and concern over sustainability of trees have also driven the dynamics of the access mechanisms. Chiefs have strengthened their authority in charcoal-producing communities and the low presence of statutory institutions with de jure mandate to regulate the charcoal sector in those communities has implication on plans by the state to formalize and regularize charcoal production and trade in the country. We envisage four adverse effects from the government’s attempt to formalize the charcoal sector – elite capture, exclusion of vulnerable and marginalized people, criminalization of livelihoods and loss of rights. We recommend that the planned formalization should be devoid of directives that would make charcoal production and trade prohibitive for low-income households.

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a growing global issue that seriously threatens agricultural production and livelihoods. Studying the relationship between wildlife damage, land use, and livelihood enables us to understand the dilemma facing current wildlife protection and ecological restoration policies and to amend existing policies effectively. Using participatory rural appraisal (PRA), quantitative analysis, and a Multilevel Logit regression model, this paper analyzed land use and livelihoods among 160 households subject to wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) damage in four villages within Youyang County in the poor mountainous areas of Chongqing, China. The findings showed the following: (i) wild boars in Youyang County were responsible for large-scale crop and property damage; (ii) cultivated land abandonment has become a significant trend in land use, and the most important perceived driver for abandoning farmland is the land plot's vulnerability to wild boar damage; (iii) when protecting cultivated land plots, households tend to protect those plots that are close to the road, have larger land area, and have a slight or abrupt slope; however, households with more members working in non-farm labor, more female agricultural workers, and/or higher non-farm income are more inclined to abandon protection of their plots. This paper discusses seven main measures that are frequently adopted by farmers to protect their crops and livestock and are perceived by these farmers as the most effective and sensible countermeasures.

This article aims to analyze not only the limits but also the potentialities of Jatropha curcas as an alternative energy source to the most common energy sources, such as firewood and charcoal, utilized in Northern Ghana. In 2010, a Participatory Rural Appraisal was conducted in seven rural communities in the West Mamprusi District (Northern region, Ghana). In this context, J. curcas plantations were promoted at smallholder scale and 480 ha of decentralized J. curcas plantations has been established, involving 1,200 farmers (0.4 ha of land per farmer). J. curcas was cultivated only on marginal soil, defined as lands unused for at least 2 years. The proposed J. curcas system could potentially replace, in terms of energy content, 21% of firewood or 21.8% of charcoal monthly used by households, with comparable costs and time , respect to the traditional energy sources.

Climate change (CC) is likely to have negative impacts in many regions of Southeast Asia including Vietnam. Increased understanding of Vulnerability Assessment (VA) methods and their applications are gaining much more interest. However, there is a shortage of practical CC risk and VA tools and techniques in the context of urbanization particularly for Water and Wastewater (W&WW) infrastructure management. In addition, W&WW infrastructure management is a complex issue with a limited knowledge of how to incorporate CC issues into local plans, thus bringing more difficulties in developing good adaptation measures and strategies. Therefore this paper describes results and experiences of applying various assessment tools and techniques for assessment of CC vulnerabilities of urban W&WW infrastructure management. Improved understanding of CC risk assessment in Dong Nai river basin, Vietnam is presented. Our research findings provide an adaptive supportive platform for conducting VA for urban W&WW infrastructure at the local level through an integrated assessment approach, through applying selected assessment tools and techniques, including Bayesian Networks, Multiple Criteria Analysis, Impact Matrix, Problem Tree Analysis and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). This work presents an integrated approach of applying a suite of tools and techniques for facilitating implementation of Climate Chang Vulnerability Assessment (CCVA) at the local level. Importantly, PRA is a critical technique that provides input data for other tools and techniques used in the assessment process, especially for investigating local vulnerabilities and adaptation measures. Further studies are recommended to develop appropriate assessment tools which would support the application of CCVA process at the community level.

White Spot Disease (WSD) caused by White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV), is responsible for widespread mortality and economic losses across almost the entire Asian shrimp farming industry. The distribution of disease prevalence is however uneven, and is likely dependent on a range of management, environmental and socio-ecological factors. In this study, 233 farms were surveyed in southwest Bangladesh, the main shrimp farming zone, to produce a dataset from a range of pond types, culture techniques and farming practices. Four categories of data (site/farm characteristics, environmental variables, disease history, and management variables) with associated risk factors were selected following the development of a conceptual framework and a participatory rural appraisal tool. Factors potentially contributing to WSD prevalence in the current shrimp crop were first screened using univariate analysis and subsequently analyzed using a multivariate logistic regression to highlight significant risk factors. Association of the selected factors with WSD prevalence was examined using multivariate stepwise removal. The multivariate analysis revealed that farms operated by a tenant worker (p: 0.03), mixed use of fertilizer (p: 0.009), poor quality water source (p: 0.001), lack of reservoir for water purification (p

The article presents the summary of a dataset related to the risks factors of white spot disease (WSD) of farmed shrimp (Penaeus monodon) in Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira districts of Bangladesh. This dataset was developed following two consecutive steps. In the first step, participatory rural appraisal tools were applied to get the conceptual framework for data collection regarding lists of farmers and the variables of the risk factors of WSD. In the second step, sampling of farmers, google featured questionnaire development, and mobile phone-assisted survey were carried out. The total surveyed farms were 233 consisting of 21 and 212 semi-intensive and extensive farms, respectively. The data were collected in the form of continuous, nominal and binary variables disaggregated by saline zones. The dataset contains some basic socio-economic data of shrimp farmers, farm characteristics, environmental attributes and disease history of shrimp farms. The dataset also has GPS coordinates of all the surveyed farms individually which are very useful for spatial analysis. In total, the dataset in MS Excel has 46 variables and attached as the supplementary material with this article.

The access to agricultural information in Sudan continues to be challenging to farmers due to use of inadequate sources and traditional extension approaches. The rapid growth of smart-mobile phones usage in developing countries resulted in several advantages compared to other alternatives in term of costs, geographic coverage and ease of use. This research was conducted in North Kordofan Sate to explore the role of smart-mobile phone in accessing agricultural information. Primary data were obtained by structured questionnaires and focus group discussion through participatory rural appraisal and observation while secondary data were collected from scientific journals, books and authenticated web sources. A number of 230 respondents (10% from total farmers) were interviewed and five focus group discussions were done. Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) version 22 was used to analyze the data with aid of descriptive statistics and Chi-squire Test. The result indicated that most of the respondents fall in age group between 21-40 years, and they depend on farm activity. There was 90% of farmers processed mobile phone since more than three years ago, 90.8% continued to use smart mobile phone to access agricultural information and showed positive contribution towards income generation. The results also revealed that there was positive perception towards using mobile phones which showed more efficient in use than radio and TVs. The results showed great advantages of using smart mobile phone where 75.2 % of respondents preferred to get agricultural information, logistics and other needs through successful communication in the mid of agricultural season. Results of Chi-squire test showed significant differences between the parameters tested. The study recommended that farmers should be connected with mobile phones to admit ease communication with agricultural extension offices and quick access to their needs and logistics.

This paper examines the use and usefulness of inventory-based management planning to practical forest management in processes of community forestry in Nepal. The paper is based on case studies in four Community-Forestry User Groups (CFUG) in the mid-Hills of Nepal and draws upon semi-structured interviews, participatory rural appraisal exercises and analyses of aerial photographs. First, we find that the operational plans supposed to guide community-level management are based on sub-standard forest inventories, which limits their potential role in practical forest management. Second, we find that community-level managers do not rely on the operational plans in their practical forest management. Finally, we find that community-level forest managers in these four cases have managed to conserve their community forests over time and appear knowledgeable about the developments in the condition of their forests in the sense that their impressions of past and current forest condition are mirrored in what we can observe from analysis of change in forest condition based on aerial photographs. Based on these results we question the usefulness of inventory-based management planning in the context of community forestry.

This study featured the ultra-poor char people's rights to development and accessibility to public services in char land areas at the Sirajganj district in Bangladesh. The study applied a mixed method approach, where quantitative data was collected from 255 households using a structured interview schedule and qualitative data using focus group discussions (FGD), participant observation, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), key informants interviews (KII), and in-depth case studies. The findings revealed that most of the ultra-poor people did not know their rights and half of them, particularly women, were found silent in sharing their experiences of the violations of rights. These violations are rarely reported to the respective authorities (e.g., village court, police station or court). It was noted that a significant number of the ultra-poor noticed that they often visited local services institutions, and their satisfaction level was very low. The findings would be an important guideline to the governmental and non-governmental organizations (GOs and NGOs) to formulate development policies for the ultra-poor people in Bangladesh.

An appropriate evaluation methodology is critical in collecting valid data in complex development intervention contexts. This paper explores this issue by putting forward an appropriate evaluation methodology for development interventions in rural China. It draws on the experience of an impact evaluation of a sustainable agricultural biodiversity management project conducted in Hainan, China in 2010. The authors propose that evaluation be culturally responsive and the evaluation design be rooted in the particular cultural context where an evaluation is conducted. The appropriate use of the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approach and methods helps generate data that are relevant and meaningful for evaluation purposes in rural China.

A deterministic, non-linear dynamic bio-economic model is developed to analyze interactions between goats and forests under different management regimes at a village level in Zagros, Iran. Data for the study were mainly obtained through participatory rural appraisal, village level survey, forest inventory and secondary sources. The model was run under six alternative management regimes represented by model scenarios: (1) BAU: the business as usual, (2) NSIR: no state intervention with traditional rules, (3) NRFG: no state and traditional rules, (4) NRF: no state and traditional rules without goat husbandry, (5) NFH: no forest harvesting, and (6) NGH: no goat husbandry. The results of BAU, NSIR and NRFG scenarios brought out that state control, traditional rules as well as biological feed-back mechanisms keep the goat population within carrying capacity. Comparing forest density in NSIR and NRFG model scenarios showed that even without state control, villagers managed to preserve forest resources through traditional institutional arrangements. The population of goats would decline if forest harvesting was banned due to reduction in coppicing and fodder availability. The highest NPV was observed under the NRFG model scenario resulting in lowest sustainability of resource use.

Herbal medicine is part of the knowledge of indigenous cultures and marginal societies across the globe which has stood the test of time. A comparative study was conducted into traditional healing and community wellness in eight different valleys of Indian Central Himalaya. The study led to the collection of data from 40% of local people, of whom 150 were exclusively traditional herbal healers (Vaidyas) about their healing systems, common ailments and modes of treatment, the responsibility of healers towards the well-being of the community, and adaptations of the respective populations to their environments via traditional healing policies. This resulted in the documentation of 22 threatened medicinal plant species that are traditionally used for curing 12 diverse ailments without any reported side effects. Several medicinal plant species have been listed as threatened due to over exploitation and the impact of climate change/climate variability. The study revealed that in remote areas where modern healthcare facilities are rare, or inadequate, the majority of the traditional communities follow cultural and ethical codes of conduct when collecting medicinal and aromatic plants from the wild. The herbal medicines prepared by traditional herbal healers for home remedies fall into six categories: powder, paste, decoction, extract, ointment, and infusion. The perceptions of local people, traditional herbal healers, patients and medical doctors in the study area enabled the categorisation of the ailments into two categorizes based on the seriousness and nature of the ailments. Results accumulated from the present study based on the perceptions of local people indicated that approximately 66.1% of the population in all the valleys were dependent on herbal medicine for curing ailments, while 33.9% of the population were dependent on the allopathic system of treatments. A comparative assessment of healing time, effectiveness and approximate cost for curing ailments through both the herbal and allopathic systems of medicine was based on the perceptions of traditional herbal healers, medical doctors and patients suffering from different ailments in the region. Of the 150 Vaidyas consulted 90% (n = 105) highlighted unavailability of desired medicinal plant species as a main reason for the loss of the traditional healthcare system. The Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach for the documentation of indigenous knowledge and conservation of medicinal plants was also highlighted as an appropriate measure for the management of these resources. The present paper aims to provide a practical example of sustainable utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants for sustaining the traditional healthcare system and scientific validation of available knowledge before its commercialization.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The current survey was aimed to identify the prime important medicinal plants in terms of medicines and further pharmacological screening of such plants. As far as, we know, no reported data from Deosai Plateau have been published and this is the first documented information of the study area. Material and methods Ethnomedicinal information of plants was collected through semi-structured interviews through a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) method. Results and discussion This study provided information of 50 medicinal plant species used to treat 29 different ailments. A total of 42 species (84%) were herbs while shrubs and subshrubs were represented by 8 species (16%). Leaves (37%) were the predominant plant parts followed by, roots (27%), aerial parts (13%), flowers (12%), fruit (7%), seeds (3%), and tuber (1%). Method of preparation fall into five categories including infusion (31%), paste (23%), decoction (20%), powder (18%), and juice (8%). Conclusion The study area is rich in medicinal plant diversity growing in wild. Our efforts in this regard are only a little contribution to the ethnobotanical study of this area focusing on medicinal plants while more clinical studies are required in future to prove such claims of local inhabitants.

The existence of unowned, free-roaming dogs capable of maintaining adequate body condition without direct human oversight has serious implications for disease control and animal welfare, including reducing effective vaccination coverage against rabies through limiting access for vaccination, and absolving humans from the responsibility of providing adequate care for a domesticated species. Mark-recapture methods previously used to estimate the fraction of unowned dogs in free-roaming populations have limitations, particularly when most of the dogs are owned. We used participatory methods, described as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), as a novel alternative to mark-recapture methods in two villages in Bali, Indonesia. PRA was implemented at the banjar (or sub-village)-level to obtain consensus on the food sources of the free-roaming dogs. Specific methods included semi-structured discussion, visualisation tools and ranking. The PRA results agreed with the preceding household surveys and direct observations, designed to evaluate the same variables, and confirmed that a population of unowned, free-roaming dogs in sufficiently good condition to be sustained independently of direct human support was unlikely to exist.

The rapid urbanization and industrialization process during the last three decades has reshaped traditional Chinese rural villages in different directions, among which tourism villages are an important type. Integrating participatory rural appraisal (PRA) methods, geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS), we explored the spatial-temporal pattern of land use changes in Gougezhuang village from 1986 to 2010. The results indicate that in the past 25 years, Gougezhuang village has experienced an expansion in both the horizontal and vertical dimensions, with increasing land intensity. This expansion was accompanied by the touristization process, with land function changing from meeting villagers' living needs to satisfying tourists' demands. Gougezhuang village has converted from a traditional rural village to a modern town, a change driven by the interaction among local governments, villagers and other stakeholders, under the constraints of the geographic environment and the promotion of large-scale tourism demand. This paper suggests the unsustainability of current land use patterns, which are manifested in the severe conflict between increasing tourism land use and limited village construction land, irrational land usage, irregular expansion, and damages to rural traditional culture and the eco-environment resulting in the loss of rurality. With the tourism village advancing toward a new phase, the current land use pattern of the tourism-based village should be modified, converting from being driven by local living needs to external tourism demands. To solve these problems, this paper proposes that (1) current restrictions on land supply in tourism villages should be unlocked, and land quota should be allocated according to tourism demand; (2) a proper circulation mechanism of rural collective land is necessary for the sake of effective land supply; and (3) an integrated plan should be implemented to achieve the balance between rural tourism development and the protection of rurality. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Photography based methods have been under-utilised as a participatory tool to inform urban planning and decision making processes on citizens’ concerns, although they present several potential advantages in terms of facilitating communication on complex aspects to decision-makers. In this paper we explore the potentialities and limitations of Photo-Surveys (PS) for this purpose drawing upon the case of Thornbury, a small town in the Southwest of England. We organised a PS exercise where participants were asked to take photos on positive and negative aspects of their town. Participants were then interviewed to discuss their photos. PS allowed obtaining high amount of in-depth information with a lower number of participants than other methods, helping to build an improved understanding of some of the issues identified. Some of the PS criticisms found in the literature such as reliability and objectivity in the interpretation of results (photos) and depth of the information gathered could be demystified. One of the main findings was that aspects that could be deemed as of difficult visual representation (e.g., feelings, past events, abstract aspects) were present in the photos. Given the low number of participants, views gathered cannot be seen as representative, but they provide interesting insights about living in Thornbury and support reflection upon the use of the method. PS also worked as an entry point to some of Thornbury's social networks, allowing the authors to get acquainted with the community, thus paving the ground for further participatory work. However, there some issues regarding anonymity that will need to be dealt with. PS asks for little knowledge on the town and on the main issues affecting the population, and therefore, can be useful for developing surveys and questionnaires, as a tool for participatory rural appraisal or participatory active research. It can also be used for gathering views in the early stages of the evaluation of plans and projects, explore an issue more in deep including an array of stakeholder perspectives on the matter.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour L. Moench) is a globally important food security crop, particularly in arid and semi-arid environments. Sorghum productivity is low in subsistence farming systems due to biotic, abiotic and socio-economic constraints. The objective of this study was to determine farmers’ sorghum production opportunities, threats, indigenous knowledge and perceptions with a focus on breeding priorities Striga infestations and the farmers’ coping mechanisms in different agro-ecologies in Ethiopia. A multistage cluster sampling method was employed to interview 315 households selected from nine districts of three administrative zones within two provinces. Participatory rural appraisal tools including a structured questionnaire, pair-wise ranking, focus group discussion, and observations through a transect walk were used to collect data. The results showed that the majority of the participant farmers, (86%) were involved in sorghum production. In all study areas sorghum landraces were preferred by >85% of respondents rather than improved released varieties. Farmers listed and prioritized several sorghum production constraints based on importance and severity. The constraints varied among the study areas due to the diversity of agro-ecologies and cropping systems. Results from the pair-wise ranking showed that farmers’ have variable preferences for sorghum varieties. At the north Shewa and north Wello zones drought resistance was the most farmers-preferred trait, followed by Striga resistance. In the Metekel zone Striga resistance was the number one farmer-preferred trait, followed by grain quality. The prioritised traits will form the basis for farmer-oriented sorghum breeding.

Clarifying the structural and functional evolution and driving mechanism of rural homesteads at different stages is crucial for understanding the interaction and coupling of the human-land relationship in mountainous areas. Based on the typical case area household survey and Google Earth high-definition remote sensing image data, this study adopts participatory rural appraisal (PRA), a participatory rural mapping method and a driving mechanism framework for the structural and functional evolution of rural homesteads. The study reveals the evolutionary characteristics of the structure and function of rural homesteads in different stages of mountainous areas and identifies the characteristics and driving mechanism of the evolution. The results demonstrated the following. (1) Due to the influence of social and economic development and the production and living needs of farmers in different periods, the structure and function of homesteads vary obviously in different stages. (2) The structural and functional evolution of rural homesteads in mountainous areas shows a typical pattern of "single-complex-differentiation-diversification". (3) The study of a typical village shows that the evolution and upgrading of the structure and function of homesteads are influenced by factors such as expanding production, improved living conditions and the promotion of regional economic development, as well as the optimization and upgrading of building materials and mutual comparison between neighbors. (4) The structural and functional evolution of rural homesteads in mountainous areas is closely related to economic and social transition and the change of farmers' livelihood strategies. (5) In terms of policy implications, in the process of implementing the Rural Revitalization strategy, the government should follow the basic rules of the structural and functional changes of the homestead, prudently carry out the rectification of rural homesteads, and be alert to the similarities between rural and urban communities, which are not conducive to the agricultural production of farmers.

Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to climate change, given dependence on agricultural production and limited adaptive capacity. Based on farm household and Participatory Rural Appraisal data collected from districts in various agroecological zones in Kenya, this paper examines farmers' perceptions of climate change, ongoing adaptation measures, and factors influencing farmers' decisions to adapt. The results show that households face considerable challenges in adapting to climate change. While many households have made small adjustments to their farming practices in response to climate change (in particular, changing planting decisions), few households are able to make more costly investments, for example in agroforestry or irrigation, although there is a desire to invest in such measures. This emphasizes the need for greater investments in rural and agricultural development to support the ability of households to make strategic, long-term decisions that affect their future well-being.

In the last 50 years, theoretical and practical approaches to promoting agricultural innovations have been evolving. Initial innovation diffusion theories led to a linear, top-down approach of technology transfer. However, changes occurred in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the economic structural adjustment which caused a dramatic decrease in governmental agricultural research and extension services in several developing countries. Simultaneously a number of new stakeholders (NGOs, private companies, farmer organizations, local governments, etc.) started to contribute to agricultural innovations more actively in the 1990s and 2000s. As the changes occurred, scholars began proposing new theories, such as the innovation systems approach, to explain how multiple stakeholders interact, exchange information, generate knowledge and develop innovations for solving problems. The paper describes the results of a rapid appraisal of potato innovation systems in Bolivia, Ethiopia, Peru and Uganda. The method was useful for identifying components and limitations in the system at pilot sites. Results indicate that the systems had similar types of components, namely national and local government organizations, NGOs, private companies, farmer organizations and media; another common feature was the limited interaction among organizational components, which reduced farmer access to information, technologies, organizations, markets and services. However, the role of organizational components was different across countries. Farmer organizations played a limited role at the pilot sites in these countries, except in Bolivia. The role of national governments was also limited in Bolivia and Peru, but played a major role in Ethiopia and Uganda at the moment of the study. Local governments were starting to play an important role in the four sites. NGOs played an active role in most countries, and the private companies in charge of input supply were more active in Bolivia and Peru. Media (radio) were present, but they were not contributing significantly to disseminating information for innovation. The International Potato Center (CIP) was present in all the systems, playing a role of innovation brokerage. Results indicate that different types of intervention would be needed for each country to strengthen the roles that components were already playing, but should look for improving interactions among components. In Ethiopia, strengthening innovation capacity of potato-related government organizations would be desirable to start the process, but in Bolivia, Peru and Uganda, enhancing interactions and coordination among government organizations, NGOs, private companies and farmer organizations would be needed, for example, to improve farmer access to quality planting material and markets. The role of farmer organizations and the private companies in charge of input supply need to be strengthened in the potato innovation systems in all places. The rapid appraisal of potato innovation systems has shown to be a method with potential to start understanding the complexity of the innovation systems and identify potential entry points for interventions.

The emergence of community-based conservation across the world has been associated with ecological, political and socio-economic benefits. However, lack of active involvement in planning and limited access to conservation areas makes the economic prospects of initiatives like the Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) rather questionable. This study was undertaken in the Mbarang’andu WMA in Namtumbo District, Tanzania to assess the contribution of community-based conservation approaches such as WMAs in enhancing conservation of wildlife resources and poverty alleviation around protected areas. The study methods used included participatory rural appraisal, key informant interviews, direct field observations and household survey. A sample of 10% of the village households was selected for interview. LandSat images from 1995 were used in mapping the physical resource base and land use/cover types of the district. Household data was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Findings from the study indicate that much of the village land has been allocated for biodiversity conservation in form of forests and/or WMAs. However, there is little evidence to show the results of such interventions in terms of poverty alleviation, which constrains other local livelihoods while benefiting distant resource users such as private investors. The article argues that to enhance local involvement in conservation of biodiversity while addressing poverty issues, mechanisms for accessing wildlife and forest resources would need to be reconsidered. In particular, this study establishes that the hunting quotas to the villages surrounding the WMA need to be increased to enhance community access to animal protein.

This paper examines the role and effectiveness of local institutions in the management of forest biodiversity in New Dabaga-Ulongambi Forest Reserve, Tanzania. Data were obtained through questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions, participatory rural appraisal and field observations. The study revealed that the most remarkable local institutions connected to forest biodiversity management include: Village Natural Resources Management Committee (92%), tree nursery group (79.4%), beekeeping groups (61.1%), fish farming (43.3%), livestock rearing group (33.9%). Main activities carried out by local institutions which directly contribute to the sustainability of forest reserve include: forest patrols, fire extinguish, preparation of fire breaks, planting of trees along the forest boundaries, creation of awareness, arresting of forest defaulters, participation in income generation activities. For the purpose of realization that local communities are capable of managing forest biodiversity thro...

A study was carried out to understand, current status of the use of chemicals and antibiotics for penaid shrimp health management. Data was collected through questionnaire interview, personal contact, market survey and participatory rural appraisal like focus group discussion with target group in south west coast of Bangladesh. A range of chemicals including antibiotics were found available in market and being used in the aquaculture sector. Commonly found traditional chemicals in heath management included lime, salt, potassium permanganate, sumithion, melathion, formalin, bleaching powder and malachite green. Major active ingredients of these antibiotics were oxytetracycline, chlorotetracycline, amoxicillin, co-trimoxazoie, sulphadiazine and sulphamethoxazole. Among the available antibiotics, oxysentin 20%, renamox, renamycin and orgamycine 15% was being used widely by the freshwater aqua farmers in Jessore area. Thirteen branded probiotics were also found in the market to use mainly by the coastal shrimp farmers against vibriosis and other luminescent bacteria to improve water and soil quality. The study also indicated some problems associated with the use of such chemicals due to lack of knowledge of farmers about the use of chemicals, appropriate dose, method of application and their indiscriminate use of chemicals.

Salinity increase has been one of the major problems for traditional agricultural practices in coastal Bangladesh for several decades, but very few studies have been conducted on effects of salinity on agro-biodiversity in this area. This study investigated the salinity effects on agro-biodiversity in rice (Oryza sativa L.), vegetables, and fruit trees in three coastal, rural villages; Putia (Satkhira district), Srifaltala (Bagerhat district) and Hogolbunia (Khulna district). Information was collected by participatory rural appraisal methods including transect walks, group discussions, key informant interviews, and 121 personal interviews from July to December 2006. The study revealed that increased salinity had significant negative impacts on the overall agro-biodiversity. From 1975 to 2006 the number of indigenous rice varieties declined from seventeen to zero in Putia, from twelve to nine in Hogolbunia and from fifteen to two in Srifaltala. The encroachment of shrimp ponds near the homestead, and cultivation of high yielding, salt-tolerant rice varieties contributed to the decline of indigenous rice varieties. The occurrence of vegetable and fruit tree species declined from 1975 to 1990. The farmers appeared generally unaware of the importance of conservation of seeds and local landraces. This paper highlights factors directly and indirectly influencing farmers’ agricultural practices, and contributes to the discussion as to how environmental changes influence agro-biodiversity conservation and food production. The large reduction in agro-biodiversity, largely induced by increasing salinity, is alarming and threatens the Bangladeshi farmers’ ability to continue crop cultivation and thus their livelihood.

Aim of the study This study aims to analyze and record orally transmitted knowledge of medicinal plants from the indigenous people living in the southern mountainous region of Korea. This article is the first study of its kind. Materials and methods Data was collected through the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) method involving interviews, informal meetings, open and group discussions, and overt observations with semi-structured questionnaires. Results The investigation reveals that the indigenous people have used 217 species of medicinal plants distributed in 177 genera belonging to 77 families with 691 different uses. The representative families were Asteraceae (13.5%) followed by Fabaceae (8.2%), Araliaceae (6.1%), Rosaceae (5.8%), Cucurbitaceae (4.1%), Poaceae (3.0%), Liliaceae (2.7%), and Apiaceae (2.6%). On the whole, 21 kinds of plant-parts were used and prepared in 26 various ways by the people for medicinal purposes. The informant consensus factor (ICF) values in the ailment categories were veterinary ailments (0.88), pains (0.84), cuts and wounds (0.77), and respiratory system disorders (0.76). In terms of fidelity levels, 41 plant species showed 100% of fidelities. Conclusion In recent years, the Korean society has been a heavy loss of traditional practices due to a rapid decrease of the senior population. This pressing circumstance raises the level of urgency for the preservation of indigenous knowledge from extinction. A priority should be given first for collecting and recording indigenous knowledge from the natives inhabiting the national parks and environmental preservation areas.

Participatory Rural Appraisal, PRA, had been widely used in the western tourism research studies as an useful qualitative research and engineering tool in gathering qualitative information. This research had been carried out in a rural, exotic Iban village (the indigenous people of Borneo) named Nanga Sumpa, whom involved in the longhouse tourism. The researcher applied several PRA research tools in gathering opinions from Iban communities regarding authenticity and preservation of their culture for tourism purpose. The PRA tools appeared to be a very functional, easy-to-understand and easy-to-use engineering research tool, for both the researcher as well as the rural community, in gathering descriptive feedback and information.

The objective of this study was to compare the management and economic success of beef production by three types of farm in northwestern Vietnam. The potential of household farms to supply beef for the market and their competition with large farms were examined. The fieldwork was done in 2007 on 73 farms consisting of 58 small mixed farms (small farms), 10 medium mixed farms (medium farms) and 5 specialised large-scale beef farms (large farms) in Son La province. The three types of farm differed in ethnicity (Thai, H’mong, and Kinh), remoteness (lowland, highland), production objectives (subsistence, market output), degree of specialization (mixed farm, specialised beef farm) and integration of production (single farmers, cooperative). Data on biological productivity, inputs and outputs, and the social contribution of cattle production were collected by household and key person interviews, participatory rural appraisal tools and cattle body measurements. Economic values were derived by assessment of market or replacement costs. Quantitative data analysis was done with linear models (PROC GLM) in the SAS software (version 9.1). Lowland small farms had higher costs for cattle production than the highland farms (0.8 Mill. VND head −1 year −1 compared with 0.02 Mill. VND head −1 year −1 , respectively). The large farms had high production costs, with an average of 2.5–3.6 Mill. VND head −1 year −1 . Cattle brought high benefits of non-cash values to the household farms. The total revenue from cattle was in the range 4.5–11.5 Mill. VND head −1 year −1 , which depended on the use of non-market functions of cattle on the household farm. The value of net benefit/kg live weight (LW) of lowland small farms with an average of 39,000 VND/kg LW was significantly higher than that of the medium and small farms in the highlands (26,000 VND/kg LW). However, the small farms kept fewer cattle than the medium farms (average of 2–4 cattle/farm compared with 9 cattle/farm, respectively) because of forage and labour shortages and have no option to further develop cattle production. Keeping larger numbers of cattle based on available natural pasture brought high benefit from stock value as farm liquidity to only the medium farms. This was the most promising type of farm for future development of beef production, given its actual success and the availability of underutilised resources. Large-scale farms suffered high economic losses of 0.3–1.4 Mill. VND cattle −1 year −1 , due to the lack of professional management, high feed costs and low animal performance, and showed no potential for developing cattle production.

Herero communities in northern Namibia recently formed the Ehi-rovipuka Conservancy under a national Community-Based Natural Resource Management Programme (CBNRM) that has received international acclaim for wildlife conservation and poverty alleviation. Nearly a century ago ancestors of the Herero were ousted from Etosha National Park, contiguous to the Ehi-rovipuka Conservancy. The communities have been denied access ever since. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods were employed to elucidate relationships of the Herero and their communal conservancy with the Etosha National Park. Memory mapping and villager interviews revealed a profound sense of lost traditional territory inside Etosha and a strong desire to return to the Park, not to harvest wildlife but to restore cultural practices and reap certain benefits from the Park. We term the separation of the communities from their traditional territory as a ‘decoupling’ of people from their local environment. We further suggest that the potential benefits that villagers identify from the Park represent mechanisms for ‘recoupling’ local social–ecological systems, requiring the literal and figurative breakdown of the Park fence. We describe a model to illustrate decoupling and recoupling mechanisms, and argue that recoupled social–ecological systems are necessary for long-term conservation of biodiversity. We further suggest a collaborative landscape model for biodiversity conservation featuring institutional linkages and integration between community-conserved areas, integrated conservation corridors for connectivity, and dynamic, mobile reserves collaboratively integrated with national parks management. This model may have applicability in Namibia and similar regions elsewhere with low population densities, high species endemism and prevailing or emerging threats to biodiversity.

The purpose of this study was to explore the social impacts of the floodwater spreading project (FWSP) on the Gareh-Bygone plain, Iran. The study was in the form of a causal comparative design, and a triangulation technique was used to collect data including the use of survey data, archival data, and a participatory rural appraisal (PRA). The causal comparative method requires a comparison of villages with and without the FWSP. Therefore, a survey was conducted using stratified random sampling to select 202 households in villages with and without FWSP in the plain. Significant differences were found between the respondents in villages with and without FWSP with regard to social impact criteria. In spite of the project had negative impact on perceived wellbeing, social capital, social structure development; it had positive impact on quality of life, rural and agricultural economic conditions, and conservation of community resources. However, no significant difference was found between women and men regarding the SIA of FWSP in Gareh-Bygone plain. Analysis of the archival data and PRA techniques supported the survey results and demonstrated that the project improved environmental criteria and deteriorated social dimensions.