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Aerobic exercise (AE) has been shown to improve cognition in patients with schizophrenia. However, it remains unclear whether these exercise-induced cognitive benefits persist beyond the training period. Accordingly, the present study sought to examine the immediate and maintenance effects of AE on a wide range of cognitive functions in 75 schizophrenia patients randomized to 12 weeks of either moderate-intensity treadmill exercise or stretching and toning exercise that served as a control. Participants completed assessments of neurocognition and cardiovascular fitness at pretest, posttest, and 3-month follow-up. The results showed that the AE group outperformed the controls on processing speed and attention at the end of intervention. The two groups did not differ significantly in any cognitive outcome measured at follow-up; however, improvement over time was noted in certain cognitive domains in AE group. The average effect sizes at follow-up were 0.53 and 0.35 for AE and control groups, respectively. There were no significant between-group differences in aerobic fitness at posttest and follow-up, and that fitness level was not related to changes in cognitive performance. These findings provide preliminary evidence for a trend towards beneficial effects of physical activity on cognition over a short follow-up period in favor of AE.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease caused by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. PD is characterized by motor dysfunctions as well as non-motor disorders. Orexin (also known as hypocretin) is a kind of neuropeptide involved in the regulation of motor control, the sleep/wake cycle, learning and memory, gastric motility and respiratory function. Several lines of evidence suggest that the orexinergic system is involved in the manifestations of PD, especially the non-motor disorders. Recent studies have revealed the protective actions and potential therapeutic applications of orexin in both cellular and animal models of PD. Here we present a brief overview of the involvement of the orexinergic system in PD, including the pathological changes in the lateral hypothalamus, the loss of orexinergic neurons and the fluctuation of orexin levels in CSF. Furthermore, we also review the neuroprotective effects of orexin in cellular and animal models of PD.

The amygdala is a complex structure involved in the regulation of emotional behaviors including fear and anxiety. The central amygdala is the main output of the amygdala and plays an important role in emotional processing. Recent studies indicate that orexin, a kind of neuropeptides responsible for maintaining wakefulness, is also associated with emotion-related behaviors, such as depression- and anxiety-like behaviors. Central amygdala receives orexinergic fibers originating from the lateral hypothalamus and expresses OX1 receptors in rats. To test the electrophysiological and behavioral effects of orexins in the central amygdala, single unit in vivo extracellular recordings, open field and elevated plus maze tests were performed in rats. Micro-pressure administration of orexin-A (0.01 mmol/L) increased the firing rate in 18 out of the 31 central amygdala neurons, while the other 13 neurons were not excited by orexin-A. The excitatory effects of orexin-A on central amygdala neurons were mainly mediated by OX1 receptors rather than OX2 receptors. Orexin-B (0.01 mmol/L) did not change the firing activity in all recorded central amygdala neurons. Selectively blocking OX1 receptors by SB-334867 (0.01 mmol/L) significantly decreased the spontaneous firing rate in 14 out of the 33 central amygdala neurons, leaving the remaining 19 neurons were not affected. However, blocking OX2 receptors by TCS-OX2–29 (0.01 mmol/L) did not change the firing activity. Finally, both open field test and elevated plus maze test showed that bilateral microinjection of orexin-A into the central amygdala induced significantly anxiolytic-like behaviors. The specific OX1 receptor antagonist tended to produce opposite effects although there was no statistical difference. The present electrophysiological and behavioral studies suggested that orexin-A participates in anxiety-like behaviors by modulating the spontaneous firing activity of central amygdala neurons.

Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) have been characterized by greater postural sway in quiet stance and insufficient motor ability. However, there is a lack of studies to explore the properties of dynamic postural sway, especially under conditions of task-oriented movement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between task-oriented postural control and motor ability in children and adolescents with DS. The participants were 23 children and adolescents with DS (DS group, M±SD age, 14.4±2.8 years) and 18 age- and gender-matched peers (M±SD age, 13.8±3.6 years). A force plate was used to collect postural data represented by center of pressure (COP) parameters. Postural measurements were conducted for both groups in quiet standing with eyes open and with eyes closed, and also while throwing a ball at erect standing. Assessments of motor ability were only applied to the DS group by using two dimensions of the original version of Gross Motor Function Measure and 4 subtests of the Bruininks Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, second edition. The results showed that while the participants with DS showed greater displacement and higher velocity of COP sways at quiet standing, they exhibited smaller COP displacement in anterior/posterior direction during throwing the ball. Three areas of motor ability, including standing motor skills, walk/run/jump motor skills and muscle strength, were found to make a significant contribution to the displacement and velocity of postural sway during the voluntary movement. It is suggested that future research should focus on investigating the definite underlying mechanism of postural sway during movement and the influence of increasing motor ability on the reactive postural sway in this population.

Background While many studies point out that posterior cruciate ligament plays an important role in squatting, not many, if any, have looked into knee kinematics or kinetics for isolated posterior cruciate ligament injuries. This study explores lower-limb adaptation during squatting for asymptomatic patients with isolated chronic posterior cruciate ligament injuries. Methods Thirteen research subjects or test participants with isolated chronic posterior cruciate ligament injuries were recruited to analyze the kinematics and kinetics on both sides of their hip, knees and ankle joints during squatting. We adopted ExpertVision™ motion analysis system and two Kistler force plates to record the three-dimensional trajectories of the reflective markers used and the ground reaction forces respectively. Findings The peak vertical ground reaction force exerted on the participants, their peak support moment and the knee-joint peak extension moment exhibited at their non-involved side are significantly greater than that at their involved side. We also find that the involved side's knee joint (extension moment) exhibits a reduced percentage on the peak support moment contributed by the individual joints, while the joints of the hip and ankle signify increased percentages. Interpretation In this study, the asymptomatic participants having isolated chronic posterior cruciate ligament injuries tend to shift their weight to their non-involved side, and part of their injured knee-joint load to their ipsilateral joints of the hip and ankle. The causes seem to be a habitual gravity center shift, insufficient muscle strength at the involved side, and a reduced mechanical efficiency in their extensor mechanism.

The reaction of 2-imidazolyl carbene-derived 2-arylthiocarbamoyl imidazolium salts with ethyl propiolate proceeded via the solvent dependent tandem [3+2] cycloaddition and subsequent ring transformation processes. While the reaction in butanone yielded 3-amino-2-vinylthiopyrroles as the major products, use of benzene as the solvent led to the predominant formation of pyrrolo[2,3-b][1,4]thiazines. This work disclosed a unique ring transformation of imidazoline-spiro-pyrrolines to pyrrolo[2,3-b][1,4]thiazines, which provides a simple route to both multifunctional pyrroles and pyrrolo[2,3-b][1,4]thiazines that are otherwise difficult to synthesize.

A new purine nucleoside coupled with an amino acid derivative, N2-(1-methoxycarbonylethyl)guanosine 1, along with β-carboline and russulaceramide was isolated from the fruiting bodies of Amanita exitialis, a newly described poisonous mushroom. Its structure was elucidated by spectroscopic methods. This is the first report of naturally occurring nucleosides in which an α-amino acid derivative is bonded through its α-amino nitrogen to a nucleobase aglycone by a C–N bond. The new compound was found to be toxic in brine shrimp lethality test (BST).