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Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a muscle disorder caused by DMD mutations and is characterized by neurobehavioural comorbidities due to dystrophin deficiency in the brain. The lack of Dp140, a dystrophin short isoform, is clinically associated with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), but its postnatal functional role is not well understood. To investigate synaptic function in the presence or absence of brain Dp140, we utilized two DMD mouse models, mdx23 and mdx52 mice, in which Dp140 is preserved or lacking, respectively. ASD-like behaviours were observed in pups and 8-week-old mdx52 mice lacking Dp140. Paired-pulse ratio of excitatory postsynaptic currents, glutamatergic vesicle number in basolateral amygdala neurons, and glutamatergic transmission in medial prefrontal cortex-basolateral amygdala projections were significantly reduced in mdx52 mice compared to those in wild-type and mdx23 mice. ASD-like behaviour and electrophysiological findings in mdx52 mice were ameliorated by restoration of Dp140 following intra-cerebroventricular injection of antisense oligonucleotide drug-induced exon 53 skipping or intra-basolateral amygdala administration of Dp140 mRNA-based drug. Our results implicate Dp140 in ASD-like behaviour via altered glutamatergic transmission in the basolateral amygdala of mdx52 mice.

Cell transplantation therapy needs engraftment efficiency improvement of transplanted cells to the host tissues. Ex vivo transfection of a pro-survival gene to transplanted cells is a possible solution; however prolonged expression and/or genomic integration of the gene can be cancer promoting. To supply pro-survival protein only when it is needed, we used mRNA transfection, which exhibits transient protein expression profiles without the risk of genomic integration. Ex vivo transfection of mRNA encoding Bcl-2, a pro-survival factor, led to enhanced hepatocyte engraftment in both of normal and diseased mouse liver, effectively supporting liver function in a model of chronic hepatitis. The transplanted hepatocytes maintained their viability and function in the liver for at least one month, though Bcl-2 expression from mRNA was sustained for just a few days. Mechanism analyses suggest that Bcl-2 inhibits Kupffer cell-mediated hepatocyte clearance, which occurs within 2 days after transplantation. Within 2 days, hepatocytes migrated to the liver parenchyma, presumably a suitable place for the hepatocytes to survive without Bcl-2 expression. Thus, the duration of Bcl-2 expression from mRNA was sufficient to achieve prolonged engraftment. Ex vivo mRNA transfection allows supply of pro-survival factors to transplanted cells with minimal safety concerns accompanying prolonged expression, providing an effective platform to improve engraftment efficiency in cell transplantation therapy.

Messenger (m)RNA vaccines require a safe and potent immunostimulatory adjuvant. In this study, we introduced immunostimulatory properties directly into mRNA molecules by hybridizing them with complementary RNA to create highly immunogenic double stranded (ds)RNAs. These dsRNA formulations, comprised entirely of RNA, are expected to be safe and highly efficient due to antigen expression and immunostimulation occurring simultaneously in the same antigen presenting cells. In this strategy, design of dsRNA is important. Indeed, hybridization using full-length antisense (as)RNA drastically reduced translational efficiency. In contrast, by limiting the hybridized portion to the mRNA poly A region, efficient translation and intense immunostimulation was simultaneously obtained. The immune response to the poly U-hybridized mRNAs (mRNA:pU) was mediated through Toll-like receptor (TLR)-3 and retinoic acid-inducible gene (RIG)-I. We also demonstrated that mRNA:pU activation of mouse and human dendritic cells was significantly more effective than activation using single stranded mRNA. In vivo mouse immunization experiments using ovalbumin showed that mRNA:pU significantly enhanced the intensity of specific cellular and humoral immune responses, compared to single stranded mRNA. Our novel mRNA:pU formulation can be delivered using a variety of mRNA carriers depending on the purpose and delivery route, providing a versatile platform for improving mRNA vaccine efficiency.

Ischemic neuronal death causes serious lifelong neurological deficits; however, there is no proven effective treatment that can prevent neuronal death after the ischemia. We investigated the feasibility of mRNA therapeutics for preventing the neuronal death in a rat model of transient global ischemia (TGI). By intraventricular administration of mRNA encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) using a polymer-based carrier, polyplex nanomicelle, the mRNA significantly increased the survival rate of hippocampal neurons after TGI, with a rapid rise of BDNF in the hippocampus. Interestingly, mRNA administration on Day 2 after TGI provided significantly better survival rate than the administration immediately after TGI. Eventually, dosing twice on Day 2 and 5 exerted long-term therapeutic effects, which were confirmed by a Y-maze behavioral test demonstrating improved spatial memory compared with untreated rats on Day 20. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that astrocytes were chief targets of the BDNF mRNA-loaded nanomicelles, suggesting that the augmented BDNF secretion from astrocytes creates a supportive microenvironment for the neurons to tolerate changes caused by ischemic stresses, and terminate the process of progressive neuronal death after the ischemic attack. Overall, the unique mechanism of action of mRNA therapeutics provide a promising approach for preventing ischemic neuronal death.

SummaryHepatic lipogenesis is nutritionally regulated (i.e., downregulated during fasting and upregulated during the postprandial state) as an adaptation to the nutritional environment. While alterations in the expression level of the transcription factor SREBP-1c are known to be critical for nutritionally regulated lipogenesis, upstream mechanisms governing Srebf1 expression remain unclear. Here, we show that the fasting-induced transcription factor KLF15, a key regulator of gluconeogenesis, forms a complex with LXR/RXR, specifically on the Srebf1 promoter. This complex recruits the corepressor RIP140 instead of the coactivator SRC1, resulting in reduced Srebf1 and thus downstream lipogenic enzyme expression during the early and euglycemic period of fasting prior to hypoglycemia and PKA activation. Through this mechanism, KLF15 overexpression specifically ameliorates hypertriglyceridemia without affecting LXR-mediated cholesterol metabolism. These findings reveal a key molecular link between glucose and lipid metabolism and have therapeutic implications for the treatment of hyperlipidemia.

Systemic delivery of messenger RNA (mRNA) is technically challenging because mRNA is highly susceptible to enzymatic degradation in the blood circulation. In this study, we used a nanomicelle-based platform, prepared from mRNA and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-polycation block copolymers. A cholesterol (Chol) moiety was attached to the ω-terminus of the block copolymer to increase the stability of the nanomicelle by hydrophobic interaction. After in vitro screening, polyaspartamide with four aminoethylene repeats in its side chain (PAsp(TEP)) was selected as the cationic segment of the block copolymer, because it contributes to enhance nuclease resistance and high protein expression from the mRNA. After intravenous injection, PEG-PAsp(TEP)-Chol nanomicelles showed significantly enhanced blood retention of mRNA in comparison to nanomicelles without Chol. We used the nanomicelles for treating intractable pancreatic cancer in a subcutaneous inoculation mouse model through the delivery of mRNA encoding an anti-angiogenic protein (sFlt-1). PEG-PAsp(TEP)-Chol nanomicelles generated efficient protein expression from the delivered mRNA in tumor tissue, resulting in remarkable inhibition of the tumor growth, whereas nanomicelles without Chol failed to show a detectable therapeutic effect. In conclusion, the stabilized nanomicelle system led to the successful systemic delivery of mRNA in therapeutic application, holding great promise for the treatment of various diseases.

UTokyo Research掲載「メッセンジャーRNAを用いた新しい遺伝子治療」 URI: http://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/ja/utokyo-research/research-news/a-new-system-of-gene-therapy-using-messenger-rna-mrna.html, UTokyo Research "A new system of gene therapy using messenger RNA (mRNA)" URI: http://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/utokyo-research/research-news/a-new-system-of-gene-therapy-using-messenger-rna-mrna.html

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) modification onto a gene delivery carrier for systemic application results in a trade-off between prolonged blood circulation and promoted transfection because high PEG shielding is advantageous in prolonging blood retention, while it is disadvantageous with regard to obtaining efficient transfection owing to hampered cellular uptake. To tackle this challenging issue, the present investigation focused on the structure of polyplex micelles (PMs) obtained from PEG–poly( l -lysine) (PEG–PLys) block copolymers characterized as rod-shaped structures to seek the most appreciable formulation. Comprehensive investigations conducted with particular focus on stability, PEG crowdedness, and rod length, controlled by varying PLys segment length, clarified the effect of these structural features, with particular emphasis on rod length as a critical parameter in promoting cellular uptake. PMs with rod length regulated below the critical threshold length of 200 nm fully exploited the benefits of cross-linking and the cyclic RGD ligand, consequently, exhibiting remarkable transfection efficiency comparable with that of ExGen 500 and Lipofectamine ® LTX with PLUS™ even though PMs were PEG shielded. The identified PMs exhibited significant antitumor efficacy in systemic treatment of pancreatic adenocarcinoma, whereas PMs with rod length above 200 nm exhibited negligible antitumor efficacy despite a superior blood circulation property, thereby highlighting the significance of controlling the rod length of PMs to promote gene transduction.

Block copolymer of poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly{N-[N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl]aspartamide} (PEG-P[Asp(DET)]) has been originally introduced as a promising gene carrier by forming a nanomicelle with plasmid DNA. In this study, the polyplex micelle of PEG-SS-P[Asp(DET)], which disulfide linkage (SS) between PEG and cationic polymer can detach the surrounding PEG chains upon intracellular reduction, was firstly evaluated with respect to in vivo transduction efficiency and toxicity in comparison to that of PEG-P[Asp(DET)] in peritoneally disseminated cancer model. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of PEG-SS-P[Asp(DET)] polyplex micelles showed a higher (P

The delivery of siRNA therapeutics owes its success to the development of carrier systems with high efficacy and minimum toxicity. Here, cationic polyaspartamide derivatives with a regulated number and spacing of positively charged amino groups in the side chain were prepared from a single platform polymer of poly(β-benzyl l-aspartate) to assess their availability as siRNA carriers through polyion complex (PIC) formation. These polymers have 1,2-diaminoethane, 1,3-diaminopropane, and N,N'-bis(2-aminoethyl)-1,2-diaminoethane moieties in the side chain, and are termed as PAsp(DET), PAsp(DPT), and PAsp(TEP), respectively. siRNA-loaded PICs stable in serum-containing media were formed from PAsp(TEP) and PAsp(DPT) with two positive charges in the side chain at pH 7.4, whereas no such stable PIC was obtained from PAsp(DET) with only a single charge in the side chain, suggesting facilitated multivalent interactions with siRNA molecules to increase the PIC stability. The PAsp(DPT) and PAsp(TEP) PICs stable in the serum-containing media underwent an appreciably enhanced uptake into cultured cells through endocytosis, and subsequently exerted effective endosomal escape for the significant silencing of target gene expression. Notably, PAsp(TEP) PIC displayed negligible cytotoxicity in sharp contrast to the highly toxic feature of PAsp(DPT) PIC. This cytotoxicity is apparently correlated with the minimal damage to the cytoplasmic membrane of cells exposed to PAsp(TEP) at pH 7.4 evidenced from the fluorescent dye (YO-PRO-1) permeation assay. There was, in turn, a significant increase in YO-PRO-1 permeability at endosomal pH of 5.5 for PAsp(TEP)-exposed cells, indicating that PAsp(TEP) exerts membrane damage in a pH-selective manner, and eventually facilitates the translocation of siRNA-loaded PIC from the acidic endosomal compartment into the cytoplasm for effective gene silencing without any severe toxicity at physiological conditions. This acidic pH modulated enhancement in membrane damage of PAsp(TEP) may be explained by an increased protonation of the arrayed amino groups in the side chain that strongly perturb the endosomal membrane integrity. Eventually, PAsp(TEP) with a side chain array of pH-sensitive amino groups was demonstrated to be a promising component for constructing siRNA carriers exerting effective gene silencing in a less toxic context.

Gene delivery using cationic polymers has attracted much attention due to their potential advantages, such as large DNA loading capacity, ease of large-scale production, and reduced immunogenicity. We recently reported that polyplexes from poly[N-[N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl]aspartamide] (P[Asp(DET)]), having an efficient endosomal escape due to pH-selective membrane destabilization, showed high transfection efficiency with minimal toxicity. Pharmacogenomic analysis demonstrated that P[Asp(DET)] also provided long-term security after transfection. We hypothesized that the biodegradability of P[Asp(DET)] played a significant role in achieving effective transfection. Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) measurements of P[Asp(DET)] revealed their ability to undergo rapid degradation. In contrast, a derivative polycation, N-substituted polyglutamide (P[Glu(DET)]), showed no degradability, indicating that the degradation of P[Asp(DET)] was induced by a specific self-catalytic reaction between the PAsp backbone and the side-chain amide nitrogen. Degradation products of P[Asp(DET)] caused no cytotoxicity, even at high concentrations in the culture medium. Repeated transfection by administering the polyplexes for every 24 h showed that biodegradable P[Asp(DET)] provided a continuous increase in transgene expression, while non-degradable P[Glu(DET)] showed a decrease in transgene expression after 48 h, coupled with fluctuations in expression profiles of endogenous genes. In vivo intraperitoneal injection of P[Asp(DET)] induced minimal inflammatory cytokine induction to a level comparable to that of normal saline. These results indicate that the biodegradability of P[Asp(DET)] played a key role in achieving safe and sustained transgene expression, by minimizing cumulative toxicity caused by polycations remaining in cells or in the body.

Skeletal muscle is an interesting target for gene therapy. To achieve effective gene introduction in skeletal muscle, a hydrodynamic approach by intravenous injection of plasmid DNA (pDNA) with transient isolation of the limb has attracted attention. In this study, we demonstrated that polyplex nanomicelle, composed of poly(ethyleneglycol) (PEG)-block-polycation and pDNA, showed excellent capacity of gene introduction to skeletal muscle. The evaluation of luciferase expression in the muscle revealed that the nanomicelle provided higher and sustained profiles of transgene expression compared with naked pDNA. Real-time in vivo imaging using a video-rate confocal imaging system suggested that the nanomicelle showed tolerability in the intracellular environment, resulting in the slow but sustained transgene expression. The nanomicelle induced less TNFalpha induction in the muscle than naked pDNA, indicating the safety of nanomicelle-based gene delivery into the skeletal muscle. Moreover, the nanomicelle showed significant tumor growth suppression for almost a month by introducing a pDNA expressing a soluble form of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptor-1 (sFlt-1) to skeletal muscle to obtain anti-angiogenic effect on tumor growth. This feature of sustained effect gives an important advantage of gene therapy, especially on the points of cost effectiveness and high compliance. These results suggest that the hydrodynamic gene introduction to skeletal muscle using polyplex nanomicelle system possesses the potential for effective gene therapy.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a life-threatening disease characterized by progressive PAH and right ventricular failure. Despite recent advances in therapeutic approaches using prostanoids, endothelin antagonists, and so on, PAH remains a challenging condition. To develop a novel therapeutic approach, we have established a nonviral gene delivery system of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based block catiomers, which form a polyplex nanomicelle with a nanoscaled core-shell structure in the presence of DNA. The polyplex nanomicelle from PEG-b-poly{N-[N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl]aspartamide} (PEG-b-P[Asp(DET)]), having ethylenediamine units at the side chain, showed ~100-fold increase in luciferase transgene expression activity in mouse lung via intratracheal administration with a minimal toxicity compared with the polyplex from linear poly(ethylenimine) (LPEI). The transfection activity was highest on day 3 after administration and remained detectable until day 14. PEG-b-P[Asp(DET)] polyplex nanomicelles were formulated with a therapeutic plasmid bearing the human adrenomedullin (AM) gene and intratracheally administered to rats with monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension. The right ventricular pressure significantly decreased 3 days after administration as confirmed by a notable increase of pulmonary human AM mRNA levels. Intratracheal administration of PEG-b-P[Asp-(DET)] polyplex nanomicelles showed remarkable therapeutic efficacy with PAH animal models without compromising biocompatibility.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) plays a central role in cellular response to hypoxia by activating vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and other angiogenic factors. Prolyl hydroxylase domain-2 (PHD2) protein induces the degradation of HIF-1 by hydroxylating specific prolyl residues. Therefore gene silencing of PHD2 by RNA interference (RNAi) might increase the expression of angiogenic growth factors and, consequently, neoangiogenesis through the stabilization of HIF-1alpha. In this study we have shown that the specific silencing of PHD2 is sufficient for stabilizing HIF-1alpha and increasing its transcriptional activity, resulting in the increased expression of angiogenic factors including VEGF and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2). Moreover, when PHD2-siRNA vector was used, the increase in VEGF secretion was observed for as long as 18 days after transfection. In vitro treatment of human umbilical vein endothelical cells with conditioned medium from PHD2-siRNA vector-transfected NIH3T3 cells was shown to increase cell proliferation. Also, in vivo angiogenesis was observed in mice implanted with Matrigel plugs mixed with NIH3T3 cells transfected with PHD2-siRNA vector. These results indicate that PHD2 silencing induces expressions of multiple angiogenic growth factors by stabilizing HIF-1alpha, and that the implantation of cells transfected with PHD2-siRNA vector is sufficient to enhance angiogenesis in vivo. In the light of these findings, PHD2 silencing by RNAi might offer a potential tool for angiogenic therapy.

The availability of non-viral gene delivery systems is determined by their capacity and safety during gene introduction. In this study, the safety issues of polyplex were analyzed from the standpoint of the biomolecular mechanisms. P[Asp(DET)], a newly developed polymer, polyasparagine carrying the N-(2-aminoethyl)aminoethyl group as the side chain which was recently revealed to show good transfection efficiency to primary cells, was compared to conventional linear poly(ethylenimine) (LPEI). After transfection toward a bioluminescent cell line, P[Asp(DET)] maintained the expression level of stably expressing luciferase. In contrast, LPEI showed a decrease in the luciferase expression, while the similar expression of exogenous reporter gene was obtained. Evaluation of the housekeeping genes expression as well as the profiles of pDNA uptake after transfection suggested the time-dependent toxicity of LPEI that perturbs cellular homeostasis. Consistently, the induction of osteogenic differentiation by functional gene introduction was achieved only by P[Asp(DET)], even though appreciable expression of the gene was achieved by LPEI. It is crucial that this aspect of safety be taken into account, especially when the gene introduction is applied to primary cells to regulate such cell function as differentiation. This biomolecular analysis focusing on cellular homeostasis is beneficial for assessing the practicability of the gene delivery systems for clinical application.

To effectively treat serious bone defects using bone regenerative medicine, there is a need for the development of a small chemical compound that potently induces bone formation. We now report a novel osteogenic helioxanthin-derivative, TH. TH induced osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells, mouse primary osteoblasts, and mouse embryonic stem cells. The combination of TH and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) 2 induced the mRNA expression of osteoblast marker genes and calcification in primary fibroblasts. The TH induced the mRNA of the inhibitor of DNA-binding 1 (Id-1), and its osteogenic effect was inhibited by Smad6 or Noggin. Furthermore, TH induced the mRNA expression of Bmp4 and Bmp6. These data suggest that TH exerts its potent osteogenic effect in a BMP-dependent manner by enhancing the effects of the existing BMPs and/or increasing the expression of Bmp4 and Bmp6. TH may help establish a more efficient bone regeneration system.

The present study attempted to identify and characterize the embryonic promoter of Sox6, a determinant regulator of chondrogenic differentiation. A common transcription start region for human and mouse Sox6 was initially identified, which contained a highly conserved sequence, A-box. Tandem repeats of A-box had a strong transcriptional activity both at the basal level and in response to Sox9. Cells carrying the 4xA-box-DsRed2 reporter fluoresced only upon chondrogenic differentiation. The 46-bp core enhancer region (CES6) was then identified in the 3' half of A-box, within which a C/EBP-binding motif was identified. Overexpressed C/EBP{beta} activated the Sox6 promoter, and mutant 4xCES6 constructs lacking the C/EBP motif lost their basal activity. CES6 and nuclear extracts formed a specific complex, which was supershifted by anti-C/EBP{beta} antibody, and in vitro translated C/EBP{beta} specifically bound to CES6. Thus, we successfully identified the Sox6 promoter and its core enhancer and characterized the interactions with regulatory transcription factors.

α-Lactosyl-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) block copolymer (lactose-PEG-PAMA) was synthesized to construct a PIC micellar-type gene vector potentially useful for selective transfection of hepatic cells. Lactose-PEG-PAMA spontaneously formed a polyion complex (PIC) micelle with plasmid DNA (pDNA) encoding luciferase (pGL3-Luc) in aqueous solution without any precipitate formation. The lactosylated PIC micelle thus prepared achieved substantially higher transfection efficiency compared to the control PIC micelle without lactose moieties against HepG2 cells possessing asialoglycoprotein (ASGP) receptors recognizing the β- d -galactose residue. This pronounced transfection efficacy of the lactosylated PIC micelle was inhibited by the addition of excess asialofetuin (ASF), a natural ligand against the ASGP receptor, indicating ASGP receptor-mediated endocytosis to be a major route of the cellular uptake of the lactosylated micelles. Notably, the lactosylated PIC micelle revealed enhanced transfection compared to the control PIC micelle at a lower dose of pDNA, demonstrating the feasibility of using the ligand-conjugated PIC micellar vector for gene delivery to targeted cells.

In the fields of tissue engineering, the exotic gene introduction for regulating the cell function and differentiation is one of the most decisive and important issues. For this purpose, a novel type of supramolecular nanocarrier was developed. This system is based on the self-assembly of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-polycation block copolymers and pDNA, forming polyplex micelles through an electrostatic interaction.

The safe and effective gene delivery system is one of the most important issues of gene therapy. Especially when it applied to treatment for nonlethal diseases, viral vectors should be avoided not to induce the immune responses, and sufficient non-viral systems are strongly demanded. Many kinds of cationic lipids and cationic polymers have been studied, however, the problems such as cytotoxicity or instability under the physiological conditions are not completely resolved. Moreover, the mechanisms from DNA uptake to gene expression inside cells and the cell response which may affect the mechanisms still remains unclear. If they are elucidated, it will contribute to determine the adequate physicochemical and biological properties of gene carrier. From this standpoint, we investigate the cellular uptake of DNA, mRNA expression, and the protein synthesis by quantitative analysis. Our newly developed cationic polymer, poly (2-[(2-aminoethyl)amino] ethyl aspartamide) (PAsp(DET): the degree of polymerization was 98) (ChemMedChem 2006, in press) used as well as polyethylenimine (linear or branched: LPEI, BPEI) was designed to have plural cationic groups with distinctive pKa in the side chain. By this unique feature, it enabled both sufficient complexation with DNA and the endosome buffering capacity.