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The Residential Medication Management Review (RMMR) service is a large investment by the Australian government and involves considerable time commitment.This study determined the impact of RMMRs on the use of potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs), benzodiazepines and antidepressants, described patterns of PIM use, and examined costs.The study included 5576 participants from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health from 2005 to 2017. Three generalised estimating equation (GEE) models were specified to separately analyse the impact of RMMRs on the use of PIMs, benzodiazepines and antidepressants. Descriptive statistics were used to present, at each year, the proportions of participants with PIMs, patterns of PIMs and costs of PIMs.There was no evidence for an association between the use of RMMRs and the use of PIMs (OR = 0.99; 95% CI = 0.88, 1.11), benzodiazepines (OR = 1.02; 95% CI = 0.95, 1.08) or antidepressants (OR = 0.99; 95% CI = 0.90, 1.10) in the following year. There were few differences in the use of particular classes of PIMs, nor any differences in the median benefits paid by government or out-of-pocket costs, between participants who did and did not receive RMMRs. There was a slight increase in median OOP costs and a decrease in government benefits over time.There was a lack of long-term changes on use of PIMs, however, its appropriate use must be considered during RMMRs. Healthcare professionals have an obligation to optimise the service to reduce medication costs whilst improving health outcomes among individuals residing in RACF.

This paper uses data from the seventh fortnightly Coronavirus (COVID-19) Survey sent to women in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health to investigate the relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and the food and drink consumption of women born in 1946-51, 1973-78 and 1989-95.A survey about changes in fruit, vegetable, discretionary food, takeaway and sugary drink consumption during the pandemic was emailed on 22 July 2020 to 28,709 women in three cohorts of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Thematic qualitative analysis was conducted on comments about changes in consumption, and basic quantitative analysis was included for context.There were significant associations between age and all categories of food and drink consumption. Women wrote of lifestyle changes and choices during lockdowns, comfort and emotional eating, and access to food and drink changing their consumption behaviours.The COVID-19 pandemic and interventions had both positive and negative impacts on the food and drink consumption behaviours of Australian women.These findings can be used to directly influence practice around healthy food and drink consumption, highlighting enablers, including being at home, and barriers, including mental health, that should be considered.

Medication reviews are effective in improving the quality of medication use among older people. However, they are conducted to various standards resulting in a wide range of outcomes which limit generalisability of findings arising from research studies. There also appear to be funding and time constraints, lack of data storage for quality improvement purposes, and non-standardised reporting of outcomes, especially clinically relevant outcomes. Furthermore, the coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic has restricted many face-to-face activities, including medication reviews. This article introduces a technology-enabled approach to medication reviews that may overcome some limitations with current medication review processes, and also make it possible to conduct medication reviews during the COVID-19 pandemic by providing an alternate platform. The possible advantages of this technology-enabled approach, legislative considerations and possible implementation in practice are discussed.

Objective: To assess the use of Medicare‐subsidised health services by women with and without dementia. Methods: Data from women of the 1921–26 birth cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health were linked to various administrative datasets to ascertain dementia diagnosis. The use of subsidised general practitioner (GP) services (75+ health assessments [HAs], chronic disease management meetings [CDMs], multidisciplinary case conferences [MCCs]) and specialist and allied health services between 2000 and 2013 for these women was analysed using longitudinal GEE models. Results: A total of 9,683 women were included with 1,444 (15%) women identified as having dementia. Compared to women with no dementia indication, women with dementia had more yearly non‐emergency GP attendances (short [30 minutes] IRR=1.11 [1.04, 1.19]) and fewer specialist attendances (IRR=0.91 [0.85, 0.97]) and were more likely to have an emergency GP attendance (OR=2.29 [2.05, 2.57]). There were no significant differences in the odds of having either a HA or CDM or using allied health services for women with and without dementia indicators. Conclusions: The overall use of services designed to improve the prevention and coordination of the care of older people with chronic conditions was low. Women with dementia were no more likely to access these services. Implications for public health: There is underuse of some primary and allied healthcare services designed for people with complex chronic conditions. These could be better used by women with dementia to improve the management of complex comorbidities (e.g. CDMs), to prevent the onset of disability (e.g. physiotherapy), and enhance needs assessment and service access (e.g. HAs).

Background and aims Little is known about how weight trajectories among women during menopausal transition and beyond may be related to risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The aim of this study was to examine associations between body mass index (BMI) trajectories over 20 years, age of obesity onset, cumulative obese-years and incidence of T2DM among middle-aged women. Methods and results 12,302 women enrolled in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH) were surveyed in 1996 (Survey 1, age 45–50), 1998 and then every three years to 2016. Self-reported weight and height were collected for up to eight time points. Incident diabetes was assessed via validated self-report of physician-diagnosed diabetes. Growth mixture models were used to identify distinct BMI trajectories. A total of 1380 (11.2%) women newly developed T2DM over an average 16 years of follow-up. Seven distinct BMI trajectories were identified with differential risk of developing T2DM. Initial BMI was positively associated with T2DM risk. We also observed that risk of T2DM was positively associated with rapid weight increase, early age of obesity onset and greater obese-years. Conclusion Slowing down weight increases, delaying the onset of obesity, or reducing cumulative exposure to obesity may substantially lower the risk of developing T2DM.

Objective: To cross‐sectionally examine heavy episodic drinking (HED) and pre‐loading with alcohol among young Australian women in relation to the alcohol‐induced adverse outcomes of memory loss, vomiting and injury. Methods: A total of 7,800 participants, aged 20–25 years, from the 1989–95 cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health answered all questions on alcohol use, reported drinking alcohol in the previous year and were not pregnant at the third survey in 2015. Log‐binomial models were used to estimate prevalence ratios for adverse outcomes associated with increased frequency of HED and pre‐loading. Results: The majority of participants reported HED (83.4%) and/or pre‐loading (65.6%), which had a moderate correlation (r=0.646). Just over half (55.2%) of participants experienced at least one adverse event, with vomiting being most common. As the frequency of HED or pre‐loading increased, so did the risk of an adverse outcome. Conclusions: Both HED and pre‐loading pose a risk to young Australian women, and that risk rises with increased frequency. Implications for public health: Although HED has been a target of public health policy and interventions, pre‐loading has received limited attention. In addition to addressing HED, there is a need to consider the risk posed by pre‐loading, a related, yet unique risky drinking behaviour.

To examine whether patterns of home and community care (HACC) use and person-based characteristics were associated with time to enter permanent residential aged care (RAC).A prospective cohort study. The sample consisted of 8062 participants of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health who used HACC services between 2001 and 2014.Time from first HACC use to enter permanent RAC. The median follow-up time was 63 months. Factors associated with time to enter RAC were identified using competing risk regression models.Of the 8062 participants, 60% belonged to the 'basic HACC' group, who used few services minimally; 16% belonged to the 'moderate HACC' group, who predominantly used domestic assistance with moderate use of other services; and 24% belonged to the 'complex HACC' group, who used many services frequently. Being a member of the complex HACC group was associated with a lower cumulative incidence of RAC than basic or moderate HACC (chances 15% versus 30% by the median observation period, p 0.01). Living in a remote/outer region (sub-distributional hazard ratio (sdHR) = 0.83, 95%CI: 0.74 - 0.93) was associated with delayed admission to RAC. Meanwhile, earlier admission was associated with living in an apartment (sdHR = 1.29, 95%CI: 1.20-1.40) or a retirement village (sdHR = 1.54, 95%CI = 1.38-1.72), having a physical functioning score40 (sdHR = 1.16, 95%CI = 1.05-1.25), and falls with injury (sdHR = 1.15, 95%CI = 1.05-1.25).Our findings highlight the importance of providing more community care services, age-friendly housing, falls prevention and physical activity programs to reduce inappropriate admission to RAC.

This article presents a broad narrative review of the epidemiological evidence on how and why the mental health of older adults varies by gender. We draw upon international research literatures spanning gerontology and population mental health, as well as major reports from global health agencies. Compared with older men, older women are more likely to experience common mental disorders such as depression and anxiety, although the gender gap is smaller than it is at younger ages. In contrast, the mortality-related impacts of poor mental health, including suicide, are more severe for older men. These gendered patterns vary by country and other social contexts. Factors proposed to account for these findings include cultural and social norms, differentiation of gender roles, disadvantage and (dis)empowerment across the life course, and the coping styles of older men. However, little research has explicitly tested these explanations. Research to date has overwhelmingly focused on identifying differences in the mental health of older men and women. Notably, most studies have been restricted to binary comparisons, lacking the data to disentangle sex and gender dynamics, and few studies have examined the mental health of minority gendered adults in later life. Finally, there remains a need for high-quality population-based research into the mental health of those aged over 80 that includes coverage of people living in residential aged care settings.

Background: Many older people, particularly women, spend a substantial proportion of later life with chronic disease and/or disability. This study aimed to estimate the transition probability, length of life with or without disease and/or disability, and identify factors associated with transitioning to declining health states over time. Methods: Data were provided by 12,432 participants (born: 1921-26) of the Australian Longitudinal Study of Women’s Health linked with National Death Index data from 1996 (age: 70-75) to 2016 (age: 90-95). A five-state Markov model was fitted to estimate the transition probability, length of life with or without disease and/or disability, and the association between baseline characteristics and disease/disability/mortality risk. Findings: Over two-thirds of women died by age 90-95, with only 326 (3.8%) of these dying with no reported chronic disease and disability. Those reporting chronic disease were more likely to experience disability (Transition Rate Ratio: 2·72, 95%CI= 2·52-2·93) than die without disability. At age 70-75, the predicted length of life without disease and disability: 7·68 (CI: 7·52-7·80) years, life with chronic disease but no disability: 4·39 (CI=4·23-4·49) years, and life with disability: 3.76 (CI=3·66-3·92) years. Difficulties managing on available income (HR=1·18, 95%CI=1·02-1·38), did not completed secondary school (HR=1·19, 95%CI=1·03-1·37), and overweight/obese (HR=1·36, 95%CI=1·20-1·55) were associated with an increased risk of disability. Interpretation: Our findings provide important insights on the onset and progression of disease and disability in older women, underscoring the importance of addressing mid-/early old-life risk factors, managing chronic conditions, and delaying disability onset and progression through targeted intervention programs. Funding Information: Australian Research Council. Declaration of Interests: The authors have no conflicts. Ethics Approval Statement: The ethical approval was obtained from the Human Resources Ethics Committee of The University of Newcastle.

Almost one in ten Chinese adults has chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, the link between dietary patterns, dietary cadmium intake and CKD has not been studied in China.Adults (n = 8429) in the China Health and Nutrition Survey who had at least one 3-day 24 h food record in combination with household food inventory in 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006, and 2009 and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) measured in 2009. Dietary pattern was identified using factor analysis. CKD was defined as eGFR60 mL/min/1.73 mThere were 641 (7.6%) cases of CKD in the sample. After adjustment for demographic, lifestyle factors (i.e. smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity) and chronic conditions, the odds ratio (OR) for CKD was 4.05 (95%CI 2.91-5.63, p for trend0.001) for extreme quartiles of estimated cumulative cadmium intake. A traditional southern dietary pattern (high intake of rice, pork, and vegetables, and low intake of wheat) was associated with more than four times increased prevalence of CKD (comparing extreme quartiles, OR 4.56, 95%CI 3.18-6.56). A modern dietary pattern (high intake of fruit, soy milk, egg, milk and deep fried products) was inversely associated with CKD (for extreme quartiles, OR 0.5, 95%CI 0.36-0.71). The association between dietary patterns and CKD were attenuated by cadmium intake.Traditional southern dietary pattern is positively associated, and modern dietary pattern is inversely associated, with CKD among Chinese adults. However, these associations can be partly attributed to cadmium contamination in parts of the food supply.

Introduction The number of older drivers is quickly rising as the world's population is ageing. Driving was found to be essential in improving older people's quality of life. However, in assessing factors associated with driving in old age, previous studies have focused on medical conditions and sociodemographic factors, such as age and sex. Little is known about the effect of environment and social roles in determining driving in old age. Objective This study aimed to identify the predictors of driving among women as they age from 76 to 81 to 85–90 years based on the World Health Organization's (WHO) Healthy Ageing framework. Method The study analysed longitudinal data from the 1921–26 cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH), nine years of follow up from survey waves three (aged 76–81 years) to six (aged 85–90 years). The study examined factors associated with driving based on the WHO's healthy ageing approach. Generalised estimating equation (GEE) models were used to identify predictors of driving over time. Result At baseline (ages 76–81 years), 55.7% of women were driving themselves, and this was their main means of transport. Over time, the odds of driving decreased as the women aged. In multivariable analyses, personal factors including education, providing care, grandparenting, and volunteering had positive associations with driving. In addition, the environmental factors of living in remote, outer regional and inner regional Australia, living in the states of Victoria and Western Australia, and living alone were also positively associated with driving. In contrast, medical conditions like diabetes, stroke, visual impairment, and need for assistance with daily tasks had negative associations with driving. Conclusion Age alone does not determine driving. Therefore, the context of personal, social, and environmental factors should also be considered and aligned with the healthy ageing goals when developing driving policy for older people.

Objectives The aims of this study were to (1) report the prevalence and explore the influence of spinal pain on quality of life and (2) assess the relationship between spinal pain and the type and number of comorbidities. Methods This cross-sectional study comprised 579 community-dwelling, older Australian women. Women had “spinal pain” if they marked “yes” to neck pain, upper back pain, mid-back pain, and/or lower back pain. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were performed to report the prevalence and explore the relationship between spinal pain and the type and number of comorbidities. Results A majority of women (55.8%) who returned surveys had spinal pain. Women with spinal pain had significantly lower physical and mental quality of life scores than women without spinal pain (Medical Outcomes Study: 36 Item Short Form Survey [SF-36] physical component summary: 40.1 ± 11.1 vs 49.0 ± 9.0, and SF-36 mental component summary: 50.0 ± 10.5 vs 53.9 ± 8.2, respectively). Having spinal pain was significantly associated with overweight and obesity (odds ratio 1.98 [95% confidence interval 1.3-2.96] and 2.12 [1.37-3.28]), diabetes (1.93 [1.01-3.67]), pulmonary comorbidity (1.66 [1.04-2.65]), and cardiovascular comorbidity (1.57 [1.07-2.28]). More than half of the women with spinal pain reported 2 or more comorbidities, with comorbidities significantly more common among women with spinal pain than among women without spinal pain. The odds of having spinal pain increased with an increasing number of comorbidities (2 comorbidities: 2.44 [1.47-4.04], 3 comorbidities: 3.07 [1.66-5.67], 4 comorbidities: 5.05 [1.64-15.54]). Conclusions Spinal pain is common in community-dwelling, older Australian women and is associated with greater disability and poorer quality of life. Diabetes, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, and obesity appear to have a relationship with spinal pain. There was an incremental increase in the risk of spinal pain associated with increasing comorbidity count.

Background Frailty is among the most serious global public health challenges due to the rapid increase in the ageing population and age-associated declines in health. We aimed to validate hospital frailty risk score (HFRS) for its ability to predict prolonged hospital length of stay, 28-day unplanned readmission, repeated admission, and mortality in older people over a 15-year follow-up period. Methods We linked data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health (ALSWH) with hospital admission and National Death Index datasets to identify admitted patients and death dates. This study included patients with an index unplanned admission resulting in an overnight hospital stay in 2001–2016 and aged 75–95 years at the time of admission. HFRS and Charlson comorbidity index (CCI) were calculated from the hospital data using the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Australia Modification (ICD-10-AM) diagnostic codes. Results Of 2740 older women aged 75 years and over with unplanned admission, the proportions of patients with low, intermediate, and high frailty risks were 77.15 % (n = 2114), 20.95 % (n = 574), and 1.90 % (n = 52), respectively. The 15-year follow-up revealed that high frailty risk patients increased 5-fold in 2015 (15.67 % patients, mean age = 92.26 years) compared to 2001 (2.56 % patients, mean age = 77.96 years). Prolonged hospital length of stay was higher in the intermediate (AOR = 2.86, 95 %CI: 2.26, 3.62) and high frailty risk group (AOR = 4.26, 95 %CI: 2.32, 7.63) compared to the low frailty risk group. Frailty risk was not associated with unplanned or repeated hospital admission. However, the intermediate frailty risk group (AHR = 1.78, 95 %CI: 1.47, 2.17) and the high frailty risk group (AHR = 4.17, 95 %CI: 2.00, 8.66) had a significant risk of mortality compared to the low frailty risk group. Conclusions This study confirms the ability of HFRS to identify older, frail people at higher risk of prolonged hospital length of stay and increased mortality risk. However, we did not observe a significant association between HFRS and 28-day unplanned readmission or repeated hospital admission.

Comorbid conditions frequently coexist with asthma in older adults and can alter the natural history of asthma, complicating management and affecting overall prognosis and survival.This study investigates the impact of asthma on mortality among older women, with a specific interest in influence of comorbidities and social factors on survival of older women with asthma.Participants were from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health and were born between 1921 and 1926. Cox proportional hazards were used to evaluate mortality rates for women with and without asthma, after adjustment for comorbidities and other factors.Of 10,413 women aged 73-78, 829 (8%) reported having been diagnosed by a doctor for asthma. Women with asthma had a higher likelihood of heart disease, hypertension, thrombosis, bronchitis/emphysema, osteoporosis and major illnesses (p 0.0001). Asthma was associated with increased risk of death (HR = 1.31, 95%CI 1.18-1.45, p 0.0001). After adjusting for age, demographic factors, comorbidities, risk factors, residential area and social support, women with asthma retained a 17% increased risk of death compared to women without asthma (HR = 1.17, 95%CI 1.03-1.32, p = 0.016).Older women with asthma have a higher rate of mortality compared with other women of the same age. This increased risk of death remains after age, demographic factors, comorbidities, risk factors, residential area and social support have been taken into account.

Objectives There is limited research on hot flushes and night sweats in women with a hysterectomy with ovarian conservation. We aimed to describe the patterns of these symptoms in a cohort of Australian women and to investigate the relationship between distinct symptom patterns and hysterectomy status. Study design and outcome measures Repeated-measures latent class analysis (LCA) was used to identify hot flushes and night sweats symptom patterns across seven surveys (over 17 years) in the mid-cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women⿿s Health. Multinomial logistic regression was used to assess the associations of the symptom patterns in women with a hysterectomy with ovarian conservation (n = 1129) versus women without a hysterectomy (n = 4977). Results A higher proportion of women with a hysterectomy than of those without experienced a constant pattern of hot flushes (15% versus 30%) and night sweats (9% versus 19%). Women with a hysterectomy had higher odds of constant hot flushes versus minimal hot flushes (OR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.64, 2.35) and constant versus minimal night sweats (OR = 2.09, 95% CI: 1.70, 2.55). Smoking, a ⿿lower level of education to non-professional occupation⿿ pathway and body mass index (BMI) patterns of ⿿always obese⿿ and ⿿increasingly obese⿿ were also associated with a higher risk of constant symptoms. Conclusions Women who have a hysterectomy (with ovarian conservation) have a higher risk of hot flushes and night sweats that persist over an extended period.

Objective: To explore impact of incident osteoarthritis (OA) on health services use by Australian women born 1946–51. Methods: Secondary analysis of Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health survey data linked to Medicare Australia databases (2002 to 2011). Medicare services use was compared for two groups: OA group (n=761) – reported incident OA in 2007; Never group (n=4346) – did not report arthritis in time frame. Interrupted time series regression compared health services use over time. Results: The OA group had higher health services use than the Never group. Rate of services use increased over time for both groups. Rate of increase in quarterly doctor attendances was significantly lower for the OA group after onset of OA, with no corresponding change for the Never group. Conclusions: A pre-existing higher use of health services is associated with reporting incident OA, compared to those who never report arthritis. After onset of OA, rate of doctor use reduced and allied health use increased, consistent with recommended Australian treatment guidelines. Implications: This study provides a rare insight into change in healthcare use for people reporting incident OA, against an appropriate comparison group, highlighting the importance of early diagnosis of OA to optimise effective use of health services. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Introduction Population aging is associated with a rising burden of non-communicable disease, profoundly impacting health policy and practice. Adopting and adhering to healthy lifestyles in middle or older age can protect against morbidity and mortality. Retirement brings opportunities to reconfigure habitual lifestyles and establish new routines. This study examines the longitudinal association between retirement and a range of lifestyle risk behaviors among a large population-based sample of Australian adults. Methods Study sample included working adults aged ≥45 years at baseline (2006–2009, N=23,478–26,895). Lifestyle behaviors, including smoking, alcohol use, physical activity, diet, sedentary behavior, and sleep, were measured at both baseline and follow-up (2010). Logistic regression models estimated the odds of having each risk factor at follow-up and multiple linear regression models calculated the change in the total number of risk factors, adjusted for baseline risk and other covariates. Sociodemographic characteristics and reasons for retirement were tested as potential effect modifiers. Results During the 3.3-year follow-up, about 11% of respondents retired. Retirement was associated significantly with reduced odds of smoking (AOR=0.74); physical inactivity (AOR=0.73); excessive sitting (AOR=0.34); and at-risk sleep patterns (AOR=0.82). There was no significant association between retirement and alcohol use or fruit and vegetable consumption. Change in the total number of lifestyle risk factors differed significantly by reason for retirement. Conclusions In a large population-based Australian cohort, retirement was associated with positive lifestyle changes. Health professionals and policymakers should consider developing special programs for retirees to capitalize on the healthy transitions through retirement.

We examined retirement transitions by gender, and different associations between retirement, physical function and mental health.Data for 21,608 participants aged 55-69 from the 45 and Up Study were used. Generalised estimating equations were used to investigate longitudinal associations between retirement with psychological distress (Kessler score, K10) and physical dysfunction across two time points, by gender separately.Retirement in men was associated with a 25% relative increase in mean physical dysfunction score (p0.001) and a 2% relative increase in mean K10 score (p=0.004), although men with high physical dysfunction score had a 6% increase in mean K10 score (p=0.005) if retired. For women, retirement was associated with a 17% increase in mean physical dysfunction score (p0.001), with no association observed with the K10 score. Results were adjusted for demographic and health covariates.Retirement is associated with physical dysfunction over time. Retirement is not associated with psychological distress among women, but retirement is associated with psychological distress among men who have a high level of physical dysfunction. The findings point to the importance of attending to the physical and mental health needs, around the retirement period, particularly for men with poor physical health.

Objectives To assess the impact of dementia on the use of health and community services in the last 2 years of life by women who also had other major chronic conditions. Design Matched groups of women with a chronic condition who did or did not also have dementia, and who died or did not die for at least another 2 years. Setting and Participants Participants in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health who were born from 1921-1926. These women were from a random, nationally representative sample of 12,432 recruited in 1996 with follow-up until 2014. Methods Repeated survey data and linked administrative records were used to identify women with heart disease, chronic lower respiratory tract disease, and dementia. Use of aged care services, medical visits, and hospital admissions were compared among the matched groups. Results Women with dementia were more likely to move into residential aged care, especially in the months and years before death. Consequently, they made less use of community-based services. Numbers of general practitioner visits were similar for women with or without dementia, increasing substantially in the last 4 months of life. In contrast, women with dementia were less likely to see medical specialists and slightly less likely to be admitted to hospital, even in the last 4-6 months of life when hospitalization was more common. The findings were similar whether the comorbid condition was heart disease or chronic lower respiratory tract disease. Conclusions and Implications Use of other services is affected by use of residential aged care, so the comprehensive care of people with dementia requires understanding connections between sectors.

Objective Older women are more likely than men to enter residential aged care (RAC) and generally stay longer. We aimed to identify and examine their trajectories of care needs over time in RAC across 3 fundamental care needs domains, including activities of daily living (ADL), behavior, and complex health care. Design Population-based longitudinal cohort study. Setting RAC facilities in Australia. Participants A total of 3519 participants from the 1921-1926 birth cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH), who used permanent RAC between 2008 and 2014. Methods We used data from the Aged Care Funding Instrument, National Death Index, and linked ALSWH survey. Participants’ care needs in the 3 domains were followed every 6 months up to 60 months from the date of admission to RAC. Trajectories of care needs over time were identified using group-based multitrajectory modeling. Results Five distinct trajectory groups were identified, with large variation in the combinations of levels of care needs over time. Approximately 28% of residents belonged to the “high dependent–behavioral and complex need” group, which had high care needs in all 3 domains over time, whereas around one-third of residents (31%) were included in 2 trajectory groups (“less dependent–low need” and “less dependent–increasing need”), which had low or low to medium care needs over time. More than two-fifths of residents (41%) comprised 2 trajectory groups (“high dependent–complex need” and “high dependent–behavioral need”), which had medium to high care needs in 2 domains. Higher age at admission to RAC and multiple morbidities were associated with increased odds of being a member of the high dependent–complex need group than the less dependent–increasing need group. Conclusions and Implications Identification of the differential trajectories of care needs among older women in RAC will help to better understand the circumstances of their changing care needs over time. This will facilitate appropriate care planning and service delivery for RAC residents, who are mostly older women.

Purpose To determine the prevalence and incidence of atrial fibrillation (AF) among older Australian women from 2000 to 2015, determine factors associated with AF, and to calculate risk of stroke at the time of AF diagnosis. Methods This is a retrospective analysis of 6671 women of the 1921–1926 birth cohort of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health, linked to data from hospital admissions to identify AF and National Death Index to determine date of death. Yearly prevalence and incidence proportions of AF, and stroke risk using CHA2DS2-VA scheme, were calculated. Factors associated with AF were assessed using logistic regression. Results From 2000 to 2015, a total of 1827 women with AF were identified. AF prevalence increased every year as women aged from 2.71% (95% CI 1.62%–3.80%) in 2000 among women aged 74–79 years to 24.83% (95% CI = 23.23%–26.44%) in 2015 among women aged 89–94 years. The incidence proportion remained constant (between 3% and 5%) throughout the study period. Sedentary lifestyle (OR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.04–1.49), hypertension (OR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.09–1.42), arthritis (OR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.09–1.41), heart attack (OR = 1.62, 95% CI = 1.18–2.24), and angina (OR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.14–1.70) were independently associated with AF. Mean CHA2DS2-VA score for women with AF was 3.43 (SD ± 1.23). Conclusions The prevalence of AF reported in Australian women is among the highest compared to previous estimations from other countries and regions. According to the findings, about one in four women over the age of 90 years had AF. These women were also at high risk of stroke. This has significant public health implications especially with changing demographics of increase in the aging population. Further research is required on understanding how women with AF are treated in Australia and their health outcomes.

Objectives To identify patterns of health, socioeconomic, behavioral, and psychosocial indicators that may be associated with low birth weight delivery or preterm birth. Study design Data were analyzed from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. A total of 9075 live singleton births among 3801 women were linked to state perinatal records with birth outcome data. Survey data were used to identify 11 indicators for latent class analysis. Latent classes were tested for association to birth outcomes. These indicators also were used along with covariates in main effect multiple logistic regression analyses of birth outcomes. Results Latent class analysis revealed 5 classes, including those characterized by low education, recent drug use, stress/anxiety/depression, smoking/drinking/low education/multi-risk, and a low risk referent group. The stress/anxiety/depression class was associated with preterm delivery (OR 1.87, 95% CI 1.20-2.92), and the smoking/drinking/low education/multirisk class was associated with low birth weight (OR 1.54, 95% CI 1.02-2.30). Traditional logistic regression analyses for main effects identified some measures not captured by the latent classes, and the latent classes identified variable combinations not captured by the main effect analysis. Conclusions Unique latent classes were associated with preterm delivery vs low birth weight. Both latent class analysis and main effects analyses may be combined to improve understanding of birth outcome risks. Clinical and programmatic interventions to reduce risks of low birth weight and preterm delivery may benefit from risk profiles that women experience.

Background Exposure to environmental air pollutants exacerbates respiratory illness, but prospective studies of disease incidence are uncommon. Further, attempts to estimate effects from multiple point sources have rarely been undertaken. The current study examined risk of incident chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma in association with emissions of multiple air pollutants from point pollution sources in Australia. Methods We analyzed prospective cohort data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Women from three age-cohorts (N = 35,755) were followed for up to 21 years for incident COPD and asthma. Exposures were measured from the National Pollutant Inventory and included carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10). We identified inverse-distance weighted emissions in kilograms that women experienced over time from point sources within 10 km of their residences. Cox proportional hazards regression models examined risk of self-reported doctor-diagnosed COPD and asthma in association with pollutant exposures and covariates. Results New COPD cases numbered 3616 (11.5%) and new asthma cases numbered 2725 (9.4%). Participants were exposed to an average of 47–59 sites with air pollution emissions within 10 km of their residences. Fossil fuel electricity generation and mining made the largest contributions to air pollution but hundreds of other types of emissions also occurred. Controlling for covariates, all five air pollutants modeled individually were significantly associated with risk of COPD. Modeled jointly, only sulfur dioxide (SO2) remained significantly associated with COPD (HR = 1.038, 95% CI = 1.010–1.067), although the five pollutants were highly correlated (r = 0.89). None of the pollutants were significantly associated with adult onset asthma. Cohort-specific analyses indicated that COPD risk was significantly associated with SO2 exposure for younger (HR = 1.021, CI = 1.001–1.047), middle-age (HR = 1.019, CI = 1.004–1.034) and older cohorts (HR = 1.025, CI = 1.004–1.047). Conclusions Multiple exposure sources and pollutants contributed to COPD risk, including electricity generation and mining but extending to many industrial processes. The results highlight the importance of policy efforts and technological improvements to reduce harmful air pollution emissions across the industrial landscape.

Difficult living conditions in urban areas could result in an increased risk of developing depression, particularly among women. One of the strong predictors of depression is poverty, which could lead to inequality in risk of depression. However, previous studies found conflicting results between poverty and depression. This study examines whether depression was unequally distributed among young and middle-adult women in Indonesia׳s major cities and investigate the factors contributed to the inequality.Data from 1117 young and middle-adult women in Indonesia׳s major cities (Jakarta, Surabaya, Medan, and Bandung) were analysed. Concentration Index (CI) was calculated to measure the degree of the inequality. The CI was decomposed to investigate the factor contributing most to the inequality.The prevalence of depression was 15% and more concentrated among lower economic group (CI=-0.0545). Compared to the middle-adult group, the prevalence of depression among women in the young-adult group was significantly higher (18% vs 11%, p0.05) and more equally distributed (CI=-0.0343 vs CI=-0.1001). Household consumption expenditure was the factor that contributed most to inequality in both group. Other factors contributing to inequality were smoking in young-adult group and marital status in middle-adult group. Contribution of education to inequality varied for different age groups.Depression is more concentrated among the lower economic groups, with household expenditure being the major factor contributing to the inequality. This finding emphasises the importance of primary care level mental health services, particularly in poorer urban communities.This study is based on a cross-sectional data, and only assesses social determinants of depression. These determinants are important to address in addition to biological determinants and other factors.

This research was supported by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Population Ageing Research (project number CE110001029).

Summary Ageing is a dynamic process, and trends in the health status of older adults aged at least 60 years vary over time because of several factors. We examined reported trends in morbidity and mortality in older adults during the past two decades to identify patterns of ageing across the world. We showed some evidence for compression of morbidity (ie, a reduced amount of time spent in worse health), in four types of studies: 1) of good quality based on assessment criteria scores; 2) those in which a disability-related or impairment-related measure of morbidity was used; 3) longitudinal studies; or 4) studies undertaken in the USA and other high-income countries. Many studies, however, reported contrasting evidence (ie, for an expansion of morbidity), but with different methods, these measures are not directly comparable. Expansion of morbidity was more common when trends in chronic disease prevalence were studied. Our secondary analysis of data from longitudinal ageing surveys presents similar results. However, patterns of limitations in functioning vary substantially between countries and within countries over time, with no discernible explanation. Data from low-income countries are very sparse, and efforts to obtain information about the health of older adults in less-developed regions of the world are urgently needed. We especially need studies that focus on refining measurements of health, functioning, and disability in older people, with a core set of domains of functioning, that investigate the effects of these evolving patterns on the health-care system and their economic implications.

Background Although many people survive an initial stroke, little is known about long-term impacts of stroke on survival. Methods Data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health were used to compare 12-year survival rates in older women with prevalent stroke, incident stroke, and no stroke. Cox regression models were fitted to assess the effect of lifestyle and demographic characteristics on the relationship between stroke and all-cause mortality. The “no stroke” group was used as the reference category in all statistical models. Results At baseline, 4% of the women reported a previous stroke (prevalent stroke). At survey 2 in 1999, a further 3% reported having a stroke between 1996 and 1999 (incident stroke). Stroke was significantly associated with reduced long-term survival. Age-adjusted hazards ratios (HRs) were: 1.64 (1.43-1.89) for the “prevalent stroke” group and 2.29 (1.97-2.66) for the “incident stroke” group. Adjusting for comorbidities reduced the HRs, but the risk of death was still significantly higher in the 2 stroke groups. Adjusting for demographic and lifestyle factors did not make any further difference to the relationship between stroke and survival. However, obesity and past smoking were also risk factors for mortality. Conclusions This study highlights the long-term impacts of stroke on life expectancy and the importance of comorbidities and other lifestyle factors in affecting poststroke survival.

Background: Nutrition plays a fundamental role in fetal growth and birth outcomes. Objective: We synthesized effects of dietary interventions before or during pregnancy on neonatal and infant outcomes. Design: Randomized controlled trials that assessed the whole diet or dietary components and neonatal or infant outcomes were included. Two authors independently identified articles to be included and assessed the methodologic quality. A meta-analysis was conducted separately for each outcome by using a random-effects model. Results were reported by dietary intervention as follows: 1) counseling, 2) food and fortified food products, or 3) a combination (counseling plus food) intervention, and 4) collectively for all dietary interventions. Results were subanalyzed by the nutrient of interest, country income, and BMI. Results: Of 2326 abstracts screened, a total of 29 randomized controlled trials (31 publications) were included in this review. Food and fortified food products were effective in increasing birth weight [standardized mean difference (SMD): 0.27; 95% CI: 0.14, 0.40; P < 0.01] and reducing the incidence of low birth weight (SMD: −0.22; 95% CI: −0.37, −0.06; P < 0.01). All dietary interventions and those focused on macronutrient intake also increased birth weight (P < 0.01) and length (P < 0.05) and reduced the incidence of low birth weight (P < 0.01). Dietary interventions in low-income countries and underweight or nutritionally at-risk populations increased birth weight (P < 0.05) and reduced the incidence of low birth weight (P = 0.01). No effects were seen for the following other outcomes: placental weight, head circumference, macrosomia, Apgar score, small for gestational age, large for gestational age, and perinatal mortality. Conclusion: Additional high-quality randomized controlled trials that test different dietary interventions are required to identify maternal diet intakes that optimize neonatal and infant outcomes.

Objective: The demographic and health aspects of ageing populations in Australia and New Zealand (NZ) are described. These data are relevant to compare impacts of policy and context in each country. Methods: Secondary analysis of international (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations and World Health Organization) and domestic population and health data. Results: Both countries will experience a greater than 80% increase in the population aged 60-plus years between 2013 and 2050. The increase in the 80-plus population will be 200% or higher, resulting in 2.8 million Australians and more than 510,000 New Zealanders in this age group by 2050. The speed of ageing in both countries is higher than the average rate of increase in developed countries. Average life expectancy at birth and age 60 is higher in Australia than NZ, with the differences increasing slightly by 2050, and gaps between men and women consistently smaller in NZ than in Australia. However, a higher proportion of older Australians report living with a disability (53%) than older New Zealanders (45%). Conclusions: Australia and NZ are well aged in the context of a youthful Oceania region, with more similarities than differences between the countries. Implications: Both countries need to continue to monitor health trends, unravel the major population attributable risks, and identify preventative and other interventions that can stimulate and support declines in disability in older populations in the future, particularly for non-indigenous older persons.

Studies indicate breakfast cereals may reduce the risk of overweight, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes, but a limited number of longitudinal studies have explored these relationships, indicating the need for further assessment.We used 45 and Up Study data to examine the longitudinal association between breakfast cereals (and different categories of cereals) and heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. Dietary consumption was assessed by a short food frequency questionnaire. Diagnosed heart disease, stroke, and diabetes were self-reported. Generalized estimating equation models were used to examine the longitudinal associations.Of a total of 142,503 participants (aged 45 years and older), people in the older age group (aged 80 or older) had significantly higher breakfast cereal consumption (P .001) than those in the younger age group (aged 45-64 years). A significantly inverse association was found between breakfast muesli and heart disease, stroke, and diabetes across all age groups. Associations between other categories of breakfast cereals (biscuit, bran, and oat cereals) and these three diseases differed by age groups. A positive association was found between oat cereals and diabetes for people in the younger age groups (aged 80 years and younger), but not for people in the older age group (aged 80 years and older).The benefit of breakfast muesli consumption was highlighted in prevention of these three diseases. The result suggests that age-specific dietary guidelines, with a particular focus on the types of breakfast cereals consumption in prevention of chronic diseases for older people need to be developed.

To determine the relative importance of psychosocial factors in arthritis diagnosis in an ageing cohort of Australian women.This study focused on 10,509 women from the 1946-1951 cohort who responded to questions on arthritis in the fifth mailed population-based survey of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health conducted in 2007.Arthritis was characterised by widespread psychosocial concerns, particularly relating to chronic stress and poor mental health. Univariate analyses revealed that in comparison to women without stress, women with moderate/high stress levels had a 2.5-fold increase in reporting arthritis. Experiencing ongoing negative interpersonal life events concerning illness of a family member/close friend and relationship difficulties was also associated with a 1.4-fold increase in the reporting of arthritis. Likewise, significantly reduced levels of optimism and perceived social support were noted (all associations p.001). Psychiatric diagnosis was also associated with a two-fold increase in having arthritis (p.001). Following adjustment for behavioural, demographic and health-related characteristics, anxiety was the only psychosocial factor associated with arthritis (OR=1.4, 95% CI=1.2, 1.7; p.001).This study examined, epidemiologically, the relative importance of psychosocial factors in arthritis in an ageing cohort of Australian women. The findings from this population-based study indicate that women with arthritis are more likely to report a range of psychosocial-related problems, particularly with regard to chronic stress perception and anxiety. Longitudinal analyses are required to examine the processes by which stress and psychosocial factors may contribute to arthritis risk and poor adaptation in terms of health-related quality of life.

Objective To evaluate a self-report version of the Home Falls and Accidents Screening Tool (HOME FAST-SR). Study Design and Setting The HOME FAST-SR was designed using expert review, pretesting and piloting. Agreement of self-reported home hazard ratings and ratings by health professionals was evaluated using the kappa statistic. The HOME FAST-SR was validated in a cross-sectional survey of 568 older community-living Australian women using endorsement rates for HOME FAST-SR items and the association of scores with self-reported falls. Results The 87-item HOME FAST-SR was constructed, and a scoring system was devised to calculate equivalent scores for the health professional version of the HOME FAST (HOME FAST-HP). Endorsement rates demonstrated that no items needed to be removed. Agreement between self-reported and professional ratings was moderate with therapists under-reporting hazards compared with older people. The mean HOME FAST score for the 568 cross-sectional participants was 9.39 (95% confidence interval: 9.1, 9.7) with a range from 2 to 23 out of a possible 25. Fallers had a significantly higher HOME FAST score ( P =0.02). Conclusion The HOME FAST-SR is a viable alternative to the HOME FAST-HP, and scores were associated with falls experienced by older women in a cross-sectional study.

Objective To ascertain the accuracy of telephone-interview method for measuring older people's medication use (“self-report by phone”) by determining agreement between results from this method and from a home visit (“home inventory”). Study Design and Setting An agreement study involving community-dwelling patients aged more than 65 years, selected from four general practices in the Hunter Region of Australia. Commonly used classes of drugs were selected for comparison. Results Of 154 patients, 14 participants were ineligible, because they had hearing problems (9) or did not use any medicines (5). The response rate was 70% (98 of 140). The observed overall agreement and prevalence-adjusted and bias-adjusted kappa coefficients were very high for all prescribed drug categories, but lower for over-the-counter (OTC) and complementary medicines. Specificity of the self-report by phone compared with home inventory was consistently high across all drug classes. Sensitivity values were more than 89% for all drug classes but were lower for OTC and complementary medicines (74%) and paracetamol (78%). Similar patterns were found for negative predictive values. Positive predictive values were lower for drugs used on an as-needed basis. Conclusion Measuring patient's medication use by telephone is an accurate and relatively inexpensive alternative to home-inventory methods, and has merit for use in future studies of older patients' drug use.

Background Anemia is prevalent in China. Tofu made from soybean is a popular food. Soybean is shown to have an affect on iron status. No study has examined the relation between tofu and iron status. Objective To investigate the association between tofu intake and anemia among Chinese adults. Design A cross-sectional household survey of 2,849 men and women aged 20 years and older (mean age 47.0±14.5 years), from a nationally representative random sample in Jiangsu province undertaken in 2002 (response rate 89%). Tofu intake was assessed by food frequency questionnaire. Nutrient intake was measured by 3-day weighed food records. Serum ferritin and hemoglobin were measured. Results The prevalence of anemia was 18.3% in men and 31.5% in women. Mean hemoglobin values increased by quartiles of tofu intake (men: 14.1, 14.0, 14.5, and 14.8 mg/dL [141, 140, 145, and 148 g/L]; women: 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 and 13.3 g/dL [124, 125,126, and 133 g/L]), and the prevalence of anemia decreased concomitantly. Comparing first and fourth quartiles of tofu intake, the prevalence of anemia was 23.9% vs 10.7% in men, and 38.1% vs 16.8% in women. Tofu intake was inversely associated with serum ferritin levels in women. In multivariate analyses, the odds ratio of anemia for men in fourth compared to first quartile of tofu intake was 0.30 (95% confidence interval 0.17 to 0.50), and the corresponding odds ratio for women was 0.31 (95% confidence interval 0.20 to 0.47). The association between tofu intake and anemia was independent of iron intake. Conclusions Tofu intake was associated with lower risk of anemia among Chinese adults in both sexes.

Synopsis Like other governments in the Western world, the Australian government is re-thinking its retirement policy in response to the ageing of the population. A ‘transitional’ model is being encouraged, which has the aim of extending the working life into the retirement period. This article unpacks the meaning of a transitional phase to women in different family and work situations. Drawing on a larger, Australian Research Council funded project, examining the shift in attitudes towards work and retirement in three generations of Australian women, three different models of retirement are developed which enable women's diverse pathways into retirement to be identified and compared, and policy options considered for enhancing women's transition to retirement. The models also highlight the different effects of workplace flexibility on different groups of women, exposing the economic vulnerability of single mothers.

Dietary guidelines around the world recommend increased intakes of fruits and non-starchy vegetables for the prevention of chronic diseases and possibly obesity. This study aimed to describe the association between body mass index (BMI) and habitual fruit and vegetable consumption in a large sample of 246,995 Australian adults aged 45 + year who had been recruited for the “45 and Up” cohort study. Fruit and vegetable intake was assessed using validated short questions, while weight and height were self-reported. Multinomial logistic regression was used, by sex, to assess the association between fruit and vegetable intake and BMI. Compared to the referent normal weight category (BMI 18.5 to 24.9), the odds ratio (OR) of being in the highest vegetable intake quartile was 1.09 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.04–1.14) for overweight women (BMI 25.0–29.9) and 1.18 (95% CI 1.12–1.24) for obese women. The association was in the opposite direction for fruit for overweight (OR 0.85; 95% CI 0.80–0.90) and obese women (OR 0.75; 95% CI 0.69–0.80). Obese and overweight women had higher odds of being in the highest intake quartile for combined fruit and vegetable intake, and were more likely to meet the “2 and 5” target or to have five or more serves of fruit and vegetables per day. In contrast, overweight men were less likely to be in high intake quartiles and less likely to meet recommended target of 5 per day, but there was no consistent relationship between obesity and fruit and vegetable intake. Underweight women and underweight men were less likely to be in the highest intake quartiles or to meet the recommended targets. These data suggest that improving adherence to dietary targets for fruit and vegetables may be a dietary strategy to overcome overweight among men, but that overweight and obese women are already adhering to these targets. The association between fruit and vegetable intake and underweight in adults suggests that improving fruit and vegetables intakes are important for the overall dietary patterns of people in this group.

Objective: To describe the health, health service use and use of recommended guidelines for care for women in Australia with diabetes. Methods: Analysis of survey data 1996–99 from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health, linked with Medicare data for 1997–2001. Participants were 12,338 mid-age women aged 45–50 years in 1996 (1.9% with diabetes) and 10,421 older women aged 70–75 years at Survey 1 in 1996 (8.1% with diabetes). The outcome measures were number of general practice and specialist visits and use of glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c), lipids and microalbuminuria tests. Results: Women with diabetes at Survey 1, and those diagnosed by Survey 2, were more likely to have hypertension, heart disease and eyesight problems, have high rates of polypharmacy (four or more medications: mid age 32%, older 64%) and more consultations with general practitioners and specialists than women without diabetes. During 1997–2001, there was a trend for a greater percentage of women with diabetes to have an HbA1c test at least annually (mid age 44%–52%, older age 46%–58%). Rates of testing microalbuminuria and lipids also increased but were far from conforming to guidelines. Having more frequent consultations with a general practitioner was significantly associated with having all three recommended tests. Conclusions: There is an increasing use of services by women with diabetes, in part due to an increase in compliance with guidelines for the management of diabetes. Implications: Linked health and administrative data provide a means to monitor health service utilisation, adherence to principles for best practice care and issues of equity in care.

Objective: To estimate the extent and modality of screening for colorectal cancer in NSW among community-dwelling adults aged over 40 with varying degrees of familial risk. Design: Cross-sectional telephone survey with participants randomly selected from the electronic NSW telephone directory. Main results: 5.7% of people at average risk aged 40–49 report having had at least one faecal occult blood test (FOBT) in the previous five years, compared with 18.4% of those at average risk aged 50 and over. Of those at above-average risk (by age and familial risk), 7.9% reported that they had had an FOBT in the previous five years. Around 5% of respondents aged 40–49 and 10% of those aged 50+ reported having had a colonoscopy/sigmoidoscopy for screening within the previous five years, compared with 30% of those at above-average risk. People with medical insurance were more likely to have undergone a screening test (either FOBT or sigmoidoscopy/colonoscopy), than those without insurance (PR=1.30; 95% CI 1.02–1.67). Compared with those employed full time, those who were retired (PR=1.45 95% CI 1.01 -2.09) and those who reported home duties (PR=1.54 95% CI 1.01 -2.36) were slightly, but significantly more likely to report having had a test. As perception of personal risk for colorectal cancer increased, so did the likelihood of having had a screening test within the previous five years (PR=1.19; 95% CI 1.05–1.35). Conclusion: We have reported important baseline data with which to compare the progress of both pilot screening programs and more widespread implementation of colorectal screening in Australia. In particular, we have highlighted the need for greater participation in screening for those at increased familial risk.

Objective: To assess consent to record linkage, describe the characteristics of consenters and compare self-report versus Medicare records of general practitioner use. Method. Almost 40,000 women in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health were sent a request by mail for permission to link their Medicare records and survey data. Results: 19,700 women consented: 37% of young (18-23 years), 59% of mid-age (4550 years) and 53% of older women (70-75 years). Consenters tended to have higher levels of education and, among the older cohort, were in better health than nonconsenters. Women tended to under-report the number of visits to general practitioners. Conclusions: Record linkage of survey and Medicare data on a large scale is feasible. The linked data provide information on health and socio-economic status which are valuable for understanding health service utilisation. Implications: Linked records provide a powerful tool for health care research, particularly in longitudinal studies.

Objective: To assess geographical equity in the availability, accessibility and out-of-pocket costs of general practitioner (GP) services for women in Australia. Method: Data on general practice consultations during 1995 and 1996 for women aged 18-23 years (n=5,260), 45-50 years (n=7,898) and 70-75 years (n=6,542) in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health were obtained from the Health Insurance Commission. A sub-study of 4,577 participants provided data on access to health services. Results: Older women were more likely to have no out-of-pocket costs for their GP consultations, but in all age groups, the proportion was lower in rural areas than in urban areas (older age: 60% rural areas, 76% capital cities; mid-age: 24% rural areas, 40% capital cities; young age: 35% rural areas, 52% capital cities). Among mid-aged women, the median out-of-pocket cost per consultation ranged from $2.11 in capital cities to $6.48 in remote areas. Women living in rural and remote areas gave lower ratings for the availability, accessibility and affordability of health services than women living in urban areas. Conclusions This study has shown a striking gradient in financial and nonfinancial barriers to health care associated with area of residence. Implications: The geographical imbalance in the supply and distribution of GP services in Australia has long been recognised but inequities in the affordability of services must also be addressed. Longitudinal survey data and Health Insurance Commission data provide a means to evaluate policies designed to improve access to health services in rural and remote areas.

The aims of this paper were to describe the geographical variation in Pap smear screening rates, standardised for age and adjusted for rates of hysterectomies and to assess the sociodemographic and health care factors associated with the variation. The data used in the study were the percentage of women who had had Pap smears between the years 1990 and 1992 based on the records of the Australian Health Insurance Commission (HIC). The best predictors of screening extracted from the model were the Index of Economic Resources and the proportion of women within each region who were born in non-English speaking countries.

Screening by faecal occult blood test and colonoscopy is recommended for first degree relatives of people with colorectal cancer. While it is known that screening participation among relatives is low, relatives' beliefs and attitudes towards screening have not been explored at an in-depth level. In this study, four focus group discussions with first degree relatives of people with colorectal cancer were held. Discussions were audio-taped, transcribed verbatim and the data were independently coded and analysed by the authors. Three main themes were identified: risk, understanding, and screening. Perceived risk was determined by family history, age and gender. Of concern, there was limited understanding of the asymptomatic nature of screening with most relatives initially 'screened' after consulting a doctor with colorectal symptoms. These findings need to be considered in screening programs.