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Understanding how SNAP participants spend their time in various activities over the benefit cycle can provide insights into ways to improve the effectiveness of the program and reduce the potential unintended negative effects of program participation. Using data from the 2006–2008 and 2014–2016 American Time Use Survey and Eating and Health Module, we revisit the SNAP benefit cycle issue by investigating if SNAP participants spend less time on home-based eating related activities (i.e., primary eating, food preparation, and grocery shopping) towards the end of the benefit cycle than comparable non-participants. We find that SNAP participants spend less time on food production activities in both periods—less time on food preparation in 2006–2008 and less time on shopping for groceries in 2014–2016—relative to comparable non-participants towards the end of the benefit month. Given the importance of time allocation, we then examine how SNAP participants allocate their time across various activities compared to comparable non-participants. We discuss the implications of our results in relation to these time use patterns over the benefit month.

The effect of the Fe/Co ratio on the catalytic performance of Fe–Co/alumina catalysts has been investigated in the production of high-calorific synthetic natural gas (SNG) from syngas. Fe–Co/alumina catalysts with different Fe/Co molar ratios were synthesized by the co-precipitation method and characterized using XRD, BET, H2-TPR, Raman, XAS, and XPS. At higher Fe/Co ratios (≥2), the calcined Fe–Co/alumina catalysts were mainly composed of α-Fe2O3 and CoFe2O4. The presence of Co improved the dispersion of iron oxides and the catalyst reducibility under H2 atmosphere. The Fe–Co/alumina catalysts partially formed FeCo alloys when they were reduced at 350 °C under H2. The formation of FeCo alloy destabilized the iron carbide phase and suppressed the carbon chain growth. These Fe–Co/alumina catalysts were efficient in producing high calorific SNG with a heating value of over 60 MJ/Nm3.

After surgical procedures such as coronary/peripheral bypass grafting or endarterectomy for the treatment of organ ischemia derived from atherosclerosis, intimal hyperplasia (IH) which leads to restenosis or occlusion at the site of graft anastomosis frequently occurs. In order to inhibit IH caused by abnormal growth of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) in tunica media, various perivascular drug delivery devices are reported for delivery of anti-proliferation drugs into vascular tissue. However, there still remain conflicting requirements such as local and unidirectional delivery vs device porosity, and conformal tight device installation vs pulsatile expansion and constriction of blood vessels. In this study, a biodegradable microneedle (MN) array is developed on a flexible woven surgical mesh using a transfer molding method. Mechanical properties of 'wrappable' MN meshes are investigated and compared to the properties of blood vessels. Ex vivo and in vivo animal studies demonstrate enhanced drug delivery efficiency, efficacy for IH reduction, and safety of MN mesh. In particular, MN mesh showed significantly reduced neointiamal formation (11.1%) compared to other competitive groups (23.7 and 22.2%) after 4-week in vivo animal study. Additionally, wrappable MN meshes effectively suppressed side effects such as IH due to mechanical constriction, loss of toxic drug to the surroundings, and cell death that were frequently observed with other previous perivascular drug delivery devices.

High pressure die casting (DC) is an effective manufacturing method suitable for high accuracy, mass production. However, its high injection speeds produce an unstable molten metal flow that induces gas porosity; a critical casting defect that limits the application of heat treatment and welding. In this study, we performed casting using conventional DC(CDC), vacuum assisted DC(VDC), pore-free DC(PFDC), as well as a novel vacuum assisted PFDC(VPFDC). We evaluated the gas porosity of the as-cast and heat-treated specimens using computed tomography, microstructure, and mechanical property analysis. The VDC-, PFDC-, and VPFDC-prepared specimens recorded lower inner gas quantities than that the CDC-prepared specimen; the lowest (4.914 cc/100 g) was recorded for the VPFDC-prepared specimen (product section). X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy analysis showed that the specimens all contained α-Al, eutectic Si, θ-Al2Cu, and Al2O3. However, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis indicated a higher oxygen content in the PFDC-prepared specimen than the CDC-prepared specimen. Moreover, the tensile properties of the VDC-, PFDC-, and VPFDC-prepared specimens were better than those of the CDC-prepared specimens, and after heat treatment, the tensile properties of the CDC-prepared specimen deteriorated while those of the VDC-, PFDC-, and VPFDC-prepared specimens improved.

The sclera provides the structural support of the eye and protects the intraocular contents. Since it covers a large portion of the eye surface and has relatively high permeability for most drugs, the sclera has been used as a major pathway for drug administration. Recently, microneedle (MN) technology has shown the possibility of highly local and minimally-invasive drug delivery to the eye by MN insertion through the sclera or the suprachoroidal space. Although ocular MN needs to be inserted through the sclera, there has been no systematic study to understand the mechanical properties of the sclera, which are important to design ocular MNs. In this study, we investigated a MN-based method to measure the puncture resistance and fracture toughness of the sclera. To reflect the conditions of MN insertion into the sclera, force-displacement curves obtained from MN-insertion tests were used to estimate the puncture resistance and fracture toughness of sclera tissue. To understand the effect of the insertion conditions, dependency of the mechanical properties on insertion speeds, pre-strain of the sclera, and MN sizes were analyzed and discussed. Statement of Significance Measurement of mechanical property of soft biological tissue is challenging due to variations between tissue samples or lack of well-defined measurement techniques. Although non-invasive measurement techniques such as nano/micro indentation were employed to locally measure the elastic modulus of soft biological materials, mechanical properties such as puncture resistance or fracture toughness, which requires “invasive” measurement and is important for the application of “microneedles or hypodermic needles”, has not been well studied. In this work, we report minimally-invasive measurement of puncture resistance and fracture toughness of sclera using a double MN insertion method. Parametric studies showed that use of MN proved to be advantageous because of minimally-invasive insertion into tissue as well as higher sensitivity to sub-tissue architecture during the measurement.

Summary Background In 2015, a large outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection occurred following a single patient exposure in an emergency room at the Samsung Medical Center, a tertiary-care hospital in Seoul, South Korea. We aimed to investigate the epidemiology of MERS-CoV outbreak in our hospital. Methods We identified all patients and health-care workers who had been in the emergency room with the index case between May 27 and May 29, 2015. Patients were categorised on the basis of their exposure in the emergency room: in the same zone as the index case (group A), in different zones except for overlap at the registration area or the radiology suite (group B), and in different zones (group C). We documented cases of MERS-CoV infection, confirmed by real-time PCR testing of sputum samples. We analysed attack rates, incubation periods of the virus, and risk factors for transmission. Findings 675 patients and 218 health-care workers were identified as contacts. MERS-CoV infection was confirmed in 82 individuals (33 patients, eight health-care workers, and 41 visitors). The attack rate was highest in group A (20% [23/117] vs 5% [3/58] in group B vs 1% [4/500] in group C; p vs 11 days [6–12]; p Interpretation Our results showed increased transmission potential of MERS-CoV from a single patient in an overcrowded emergency room and provide compelling evidence that health-care facilities worldwide need to be prepared for emerging infectious diseases. Funding None.

Summary Objectives The galactomannan (GM) test is a useful method for early diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Recently, multiple myeloma has newly been suggested to be related to false-positive results of GM. We performed a case-control study to validate this finding. Methods Electronic medical records were reviewed for patients admitted March through June 2014. Patients with false-positive GM results were selected as cases and those with negatives as controls. To verify the results of the four-month analysis, additional analysis was performed in multiple myeloma patients over a three-year period. Results There were 30 false-positive and 316 negative cases during the four-month period. Among the factors evaluated, multiple myeloma was the only significant factor in the adjusted analysis (OR = 3.59, CI 1.28–10.04). In the three-year analysis of 145 multiple myeloma patients, 25.5% showed false-positive results, which was 3 times higher than overall. GM false-positivity was not related to serum monoclonal protein level or type of immunoglobulin. GM optical density indexes (ODIs) in all false positives were lower than 3.0. Conclusions Multiple myeloma was a major cause of GM false-positivity in adult cancer patients. GM was false-positive in 25.5% of multiple myeloma patients with GM ODIs lower than 3.0.

Thermal drawing is a versatile rapid prototyping method that can freely form microneedle (MN) structures with ultra-high aspect ratio without relying on any complex and expensive process. However, it is still challenging to repeatedly produce MNs with identical shapes using this thermal drawing due to small fluctuations in processing conditions such as temperatures, drawing speeds, drawing heights, or parallelism in the drawing setup. In addition, thermal drawing is only applicable to thermoplastic materials and most natural biomaterials are incompatible with this method. Thus, we propose use of thermal drawing to fabricate master molds with high aspect ratios and replicate the shape by micromolding. In this work, high A/R MNs with various body profiles were fabricated by thermal drawing and replicated to silk fibroin (SF) MNs multiple times using micromolding. The original MN shape was precisely copied to the SF MNs. Methanol treatment enhanced the mechanical strength of SF MNs up to about 113% more depending on the treatment duration. We also demonstrated that methanol exposure time could effectively control drug release rates from SF MNs.

It has been challenging for microneedles to deliver drugs effectively to thin tissues with little background support such as the cornea. Herein, we designed a microneedle pen system, a single microneedle with a spring-loaded microneedle applicator to provide impact insertion. To firmly attach solid microneedles with 140 μm in height at the end of macro-scale applicators, a transfer molding process was employed. The fabricated microneedle pens were then applied to mouse corneas. The microneedle pens successfully delivered rhodamine dye deep enough to reach the stromal layer of the cornea with small entry only about 1000 μm(2). When compared with syringes or 30 G needle tips, microneedle pens could achieve more localized and minimally invasive delivery without any chances of perforation. To investigate the efficacy of microneedle pens as a way of drug delivery, sunitinib malate proven to inhibit in vitro angiogenesis, was delivered to suture-induced angiogenesis model. When compared with delivery by a 30 G needle tip dipped with sunitinib malate, only delivery by microneedle pens could effectively inhibit corneal neovascularization in vivo. Microneedle pens could effectively deliver drugs to thin tissues without impairing merits of using microneedles: localized and minimally invasive delivery.

We test for consistency between bids from endowment auctions that allow positive or negative bids for an exchange between two items, and bids from prior full bidding auctions for the same items. Results suggest that positive WTP bids in the endowment auction are demand revealing but subjects overbid (in absolute value) their negative WTA values. WTA bids were lower in a random n th price auction than in a 5th price auction.

Direct carbon fuel cells (DCFCs) have recently attracted great interest because they could provide a considerably more efficient means of power generation in comparison with conventional coal-fired power plants. Among various types of DCFCs under development, a hybrid system offers the combined advantages of solid oxide and molten carbonate electrolytes; however, there is a significant technical challenge in terms of power capability. Here, we report an experimental study demonstrating how anode microstructure influences the power-generating characteristics of hybrid DCFCs. The anode microstructure (pore volume and surface area) is modified by using poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) pore-formers. Polarization studies indicate that cell performance is strongly dependent on the anode surface area rather than on the pore volume. The incorporation of PMMA-derived pores into the anode leads to improved power capability at typical operating temperatures, which is attributed to an enlarged active zone for electrochemical CO oxidation.

In this study, environmental issues associated with silicon-based photovoltaic (PV) systems in Korea are investigated using life cycle assessment (LCA). The target PV systems are single-crystalline silicon (sc-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si) modules with a power conditioning system (PCS) and balance of system (BOS). In order to identify the environmental benefits and key environmental issues associated with the deployment of these systems, the global warming potential (GWP), fossil-fuel consumption (FFC), CO2 payback time (CO2PBT), and energy payback time (EPBT) of the target PV systems throughout their life cycles are analyzed. The LCA results show that sc-Si and mc-Si PV systems are superior to the current grid mix in Korea with respect to GWP and FFC. For the current conversion efficiency, the mc-Si PV system has lower values of GWP and FFC. With the predicted improvements in conversion efficiency, the GWP results associated with the construction phase of sc-Si and mc-Si PV system will be offset by electricity generated in 1.66 and 1.53 years, since then 1470 and 1477 tonne CO2 equiv. of GHGs are reduced during its lifetimes, respectively. In addition, the energy inputs during sc-Si and mc-Si PV system’s construction phase will be offset in 3.11 and 2.97 years, since by then 10.15 and 10.20 TJ of net energy benefit will have been obtained, respectively. Considering the planned deployment of PV systems in Korea and the expected improvements in PV module efficiencies, the net CO2 reduction and net energy benefit between 2010 and 2030 were calculated. If 0.45% of the Korean grid mix was substituted with mc-Si PV systems, and a conversion efficiency of 20.30% were attained, the net CO2 reduction would be a 69.8 Mtonne CO2 equiv. The supply plan is achieved using sc-Si PV systems, which achieve a conversion efficiency of 27.60%; the net energy benefit would be 410.6 TJ, which is equivalent to 4.3% of the total primary energy supply in 2009. It is shown that sc-Si and mc-Si PV systems would be suitable solutions to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions if they replaced non-renewable energy sources in Korea.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is used to treat neurological diseases such as stroke and Parkinson's disease (PD). Although rTMS has been used clinically, its underlying therapeutic mechanism remains unclear. The objective of the present study was to clarify the neuroprotective effect and therapeutic mechanism of rTMS in an animal model of PD. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats were unilaterally injected with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the right striatum. Rats with PD were then treated with rTMS (circular coil, 10 Hz, 20 min/day) daily for 4 weeks. Behavioral assessments such as amphetamine-induced rotational test and treadmill locomotion test were performed, and the dopaminergic (DA) neurons of substantia nigra pas compacta (SNc) and striatum were histologically examined. Expression of neurotrophic/growth factors was also investigated by multiplex ELISA, western blotting analysis and immunohistochemistry 4 weeks after rTMS application. Among the results, the number of amphetamine-induced rotations was significantly lower in the rTMS group than in the control group at 4 weeks post-treatment. Treadmill locomotion was also significantly improved in the rTMS-treated rats. Tyrosine hydroxylase-positive DA neurons and DA fibers in rTMS group rats were greater than those in untreated group in both ipsilateral SNc and striatum, respectively. The expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor were elevated in both the 6-OHDA-injected hemisphere and the SNc of the rTMS-treated rats. In conclusion, rTMS treatment improved motor functions and survival of DA neurons, suggesting that the neuroprotective effect of rTMS treatment might be induced by upregulation of neurotrophic/growth factors in the PD animal model.

A 61-year-old man with chronic hepatitis B and dyslipidemia visited the emergency department with a fever and severe headache. He was diagnosed with bacterial meningitis after a lumbar puncture, and blood culture revealed Parvimonas micra bacteremia. Although he had a history of extraction of a molar two weeks before symptom onset, there was no evidence of abscess formation on physical examination or imaging studies. He was successfully treated with oral metronidazole for 12 days after 9 days of treatment with IV ceftriaxone and vancomcycin. This is the first report of primary bacterial meningitis caused by this organism, which indicates that this organism is capable of being a bacterial meningitis pathogen.

This study demonstrates a simple and efficient strategy for the sensitivity improvement in detection of biomolecules via surface plasmon resonance field enhancement in a Kretschmann configuration. Synergistic coupling effects between propagating and localized surface plasmons (SPs) were demonstrated by incorporating arrays of Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) in-between DNA sensing assays. AuNPs with 5 nm or 15 nm diameter were incorporated respectively on the top of the streptavidin layer, and the coupling-induced sensitivity enhancement was systematically investigated. Uniform dispersion of AuNPs was confirmed by TEM analysis. The overall sensing capability of each system was investigated in terms of the reflectivity change, angular shift, and affinity constant for the DNA hybridization process and it was found that AuNP-arrays with appropriate size and lateral distribution led to the best efficiency. The experimental results were in good agreement with numerical simulation data based on a rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA).

This paper introduces a mobile humanoid robot platform able to execute various services for humans in their everyday environments. For service in more intelligent and varied environments, the control system of a robot must operate efficiently to ensure a coordinated robot system. We enhanced the efficiency of the control system by developing a dual-network control system. The network system consists of two communication protocols: high-speed IEEE 1394, and a highly stable Controller Area Network (CAN). A service framework is also introduced for the coordinated task execution by a humanoid robot. To execute given tasks, various sub-systems of the robot were coordinated effectively by this system. Performance assessments of the presented framework and the proposed control system are experimentally conducted. MAHRU-M, as a platform for a mobile humanoid robot, recognizes the designated object. The object's pose is calculated by performing model-based object tracking using a particle filter with back projection-based sampling. A unique approach is used to solve the human-like arm inverse kinematics, allowing the control system to generate smooth trajectories for each joint of the humanoid robot. A mean-shift algorithm using bilateral filtering is also used for real-time and robust object tracking. The results of the experiment show that a robot can execute its services efficiently in human workspaces such as an office or a home.

Material flow analysis (MFA) is an evaluation technique that systematically identifies the flows and stocks of materials within predefined spatial and temporal boundaries. In this paper, the steel resources in Korea are investigated using dynamic MFA. Iron ore and steel scrap are added as raw material components during the production processes of steel, which is then used in a variety of product groups such as construction products, transportation equipment, machinery/metal products, electrical/electronic devices, and other products through fabrication and manufacturing processes. When such product groups are discarded, they are either recycled or landfilled. With consideration for the lifetimes of various product groups in conjunction with steel resource flows in Korea, dynamic MFA is conducted on the flows of steel stock change and annual scrap generation. By 2020, these two flows are expected to increase by as much as 40% and 30%, respectively, compared to 2008, with transportation equipment, in particular, envisaged to experience high growth. At the current recycling rate, however, it will be hard to meet future scrap demand. According to the scenario analysis, 100% of this future scrap demand can be supplied domestically if the recycling rate is increased to over 70% for all product groups, except construction products and transportation equipment, which already have high recycling rates. By 2020, the reduction in scrap importation costs is projected to offer a financial gain of 2.3 billion dollars.

Self-assembled poly(4-vinylpyridine)-grafted gold (Au) nanoparticles (NPs) and polystyrene-b-poly(4-vinylpyridine) block copolymers were fabricated by the introduction of a selective solvent to a common solution. The assembled mixtures were spin-coated onto solid substrates to fabricate composite gold/polymer thin films composed of copolymer-hybridized Au NPs and independent copolymer micelles. The obtained composite Au thin films had variable localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) bands and microscopic morphologies upon vapor annealing with selective solvents because the adsorption and dissolving of solvent molecules into the films could rearrange the copolymer block. The hybrid nanostructured Au thin films may have potential in vapor sensing and organic assays.

Urban governments are continually striving to improve air quality by making public transportation more environmentally friendly. H2 fuel cell buses (FCBs) offer one of the best ways to reduce air pollution. FCB has high energy efficiency and lower air pollutant emissions than conventional buses (e.g. diesel bus/Compressed natural gas bus, CNGB), and H2 is an attractive alternative energy source in the face of depleting fossil fuels and global warming. H2 can be produced via fossil fuels and renewable sources and then stored and distributed in a variety of different ways. While many contend that H2 and FCB are not yet commercially viable, H2 technology has developed a great deal over recent years. This fact alone demands that governments as well as for-profit businesses take a discerning look at what H2 and FCB have to offer in terms of both environmental and economic opportunities. In this study, environmental and economic aspects of hydrogen pathways are analyzed according to plausible production methods and capacity, and distribution options in Korea using life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) methods. This study considers the following means of hydrogen production: naphtha steam reforming (Naphtha SR), natural gas steam reforming (NG SR), and water electrolysis (WE). Additionally, conventional fuels (Diesel and CNG) are also included as target fuel pathways in order to identify which hydrogen pathway in particular has the greatest environmental advantage over conventional fuels. This study aimed to identify whether H2 and FCB can compete with conventional fuels used in buses in terms of the eco-efficiency method, which focuses on economic feasibility and environmental improvement. The conclusion of this study is that H2 pathways, especially, Naphtha SR [C] and NG SR [S], are more competitive than conventional fuels from an eco-efficiency perspective. As a result, switching from conventional transportation fuel to these suggested H2 pathways is expected to offer an economically and environmentally more eco-efficient means of transportation. Henceforth, drawing upon evidence within this report, decision-makers would be wise to invest in more cost-effective and environment-friendly fuels by constructing an optimal H2 infrastructure.

This study aimed to identify the environmental and economic aspects of the wind-hydrogen system using life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) methodologies. The target H 2 pathways are the H 2 pathway of water electrolysis (WE) with wind power (WE[Wind]) and the H 2 pathway of WE by Korean electricity mix (WE[KEM]). Conventional fuels (gasoline and diesel) are also included as target fuel pathways to identify the fuel pathways with economic and environmental advantages over conventional fuels. The key environmental issues in the transportation sector are analyzed in terms of fossil fuel consumption (FFC), regulated air pollutants (RAPs), abiotic resource depletion (ARD), and global warming (GW). The life cycle costs of the target fuel pathways consist of the well-to-tank (WTT) costs and the tank-to-wheel (TTW) costs. Moreover, two scenarios are analyzed to predict potential economic and environmental improvements offered by wind energy-powered hydrogen stations. In LCA results, WE[Wind] is superior to the other pathways in all environmental categories. The LCC results show that the projected WTT cost savings of WE[Wind] and WE[KEM] compared to gasoline are US $ 0.050 and US $ 0.036 per MJ, respectively, because hydrogen will not be subjected to any fuel tax according to the Korean Energy Policy in 2015. Although WE[KEM] and WE[Wind] incur high capital costs owing to the required capital investment in fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), they have lower well-to-wheel (WTW) costs than those of conventional fuels due to the high FCV efficiency in fuel utilization stage. WTW costs for gasoline are higher than those of WE[KEM] and WE[Wind] by US $ 12,600 and US $ 10,200, respectively. This study demonstrated the future competitiveness of the WE[Wind] pathway in both environmental and economic aspects. In the WTT stage, the point-of-sale of the electricity produced by the wind power plant (WPP) cannot be controlled because the wind-powered electricity production fluctuates considerably depending on the wind. However, the use of a wind-powered H 2 station in the future enables stable wind power plant management and provides greater economic profit than the present system since the wind-powered electricity can be used for the hydrogen production in the H 2 station and any residual electricity is sold to Korea electric power corporation (KEPCO). If 5% of conventional vehicles in Korea are substituted with FCVs using H 2 via WE[Wind] in 2015, CO 2 emission will be reduced by 2,876,000 tons/year and annual LCC costs by US $ 8559 million. Thus, the operation of wind-powered hydrogen stations will encourage the introduction of hydrogen into the transportation fuel market.

In this study, the environmental aspects of H2 pathways are analyzed according to plausible H2 production methods, production capacity, and distribution options in Korea, using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. The target H2 pathways analyzed are H2 via naphtha steam reforming (Naphtha SR), H2 via natural gas steam reforming (NG SR), H2 via liquefied petroleum gas steam reforming (LPG SR), H2 via water electrolysis with wind power (WE[Wind]), and H2 via water electrolysis with Korea electricity mix (WE[KEM]). The results are then compared with those of conventional fuels (gasoline, diesel, and LPG) to identify which H2 pathway has less environmental impact than the conventional fuels. Global warming (GW) impact, fossil fuel consumption (FFC) and regulated air emissions are studied to examine the environmental aspects of each fuel pathway. Given that H2 technologies and infrastructures have yet to be fully commercialized, the environmental aspects of each pathway are analyzed in both their present status and a future scenario in 2015. LCA results show that WE[Wind] is superior regarding global warming potential (GWP), FFC and regulated air emissions. When gasoline is replaced with H2 from WE[Wind], 99.8% and 99.9% of GWP and FFC can be reduced, respectively. Among the H2 pathways based on fossil fuels, Naphtha SR[C] has the lowest values of GWP since the CO2 capture equipment is attached to it. On the other hand, Naphtha SR[S] which is the station-type H2 pathway does not have the CO2 capture equipment. Naphtha SR[C] can reduce CO2 emissions by 23.60 tons compared to gasoline over the entire life cycle of a vehicle. At present, Naphtha SR[C] appears to be environmentally efficient as H2 conversion and infrastructure technologies have already been commercialized and are suitably developed in Korea. In 2015, however, among the H2 pathways based on fossil fuels LPG SR[S] is expected to be the best pathway in terms of FFC and regulated air emissions, while Naphtha SR[C] will likely have lowest impact on GW by that time as well.

This study uses a life cycle costing (LCC) methodology to identify when hydrogen can become economically feasible compared to the conventional fuels and which energy policy is the most effective at fostering the penetration of hydrogen in the competitive fuel market. The target hydrogen pathways in this study are H2 via natural gas steam reforming (NG SR), H2 via naphtha steam reforming (Naphtha SR), H2 via liquefied petroleum gas steam reforming (LPG SR), and H2 via water electrolysis (WE). In addition, the conventional fuels (gasoline, diesel) are also included for the comparison with the H2 pathways. The life cycle costs of the target fuels are computed and several key factors are examined to identify the economical feasibilities of the target systems: fuel cell vehicle (FCV) price, social cost of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and regulated air emissions (CO, VOC, SOx, NOx, PM), fuel efficiency of FCV, capital costs of H2 equipments at a H2 fueling station. The life cycle costs of a H2 pathway also depend on the production capacity. Although, at present, all H2 pathways are more cost efficient than the conventional fuels in the fuel utilization stage, the H2 pathways have lack competitiveness against the conventional fuels in the life cycle (well to wheel) costs due to the high price of FCV. From future scenario analyses in 2015, all H2 pathways are expected to have lower life cycle costs than the conventional fuels as a transportation fuel. It is evident that the FCV price is the most important factor for encouraging the hydrogen economy and FCVs. Unless the FCV price is below US $62,320, it is necessary for the institution to subsidize the FCV price by any amount over US $62,320 in order to inject H2 into the market of transportation fuel. The incentive or taxes on GHGs and regulated air emissions are also expected to effectively encourage the diffusion of H2 and FCV, especially for the H2 pathway of WE with wind power (WE[Wind]). The uncertainties in the fuel efficiency of FCV and the capital costs for H2 equipment at a H2 fueling station have little influence on the life cycle costs of H2 pathways.

The aim of this study was to describe the clinical applications of percutaneous electrical stimulation to sensory nerve fibers to improve motor function and its limitation. Semi-conditional dorsal penile nerve stimulation was used in this study to improve the storage function of the bladder in patient with spinal cord injury. The result of percutaneous electrical stimulation was compared with that of transcutaneous electrical stimulation. Seven subjects, who showed favourable results in suppression of bladder hyper-reflexia by transcutaneous, were tested using percutaneous electrical stimulation to compare the effect. For the transcutaneous stimulation surface electrodes with 1 cm diameters were used. The cathode and anode were placed, proximally and distally, respectively, on the dorsum of the penile shaft. For the percutaneous stimulation two sets of paired wire electrodes were placed in subcutaneous layer of dorsum of penile shaft, using guide needle. We applied dorsal penile nerve (DPN) stimulation using portable stimulator during the continuous bladder filling. Stimulation parameters were biphasic rectangular pulses of 25 Hz frequency, 250 μs pulse width. The 1 min stimulation was repeated to every reflex contraction during the cystometry. Immediate suppressive effect of DPN was analyzed. The infused volume of saline at the first and last reflex contraction during the percutaneous stimulation was not significantly different from that during the transcutaneous stimulation. The duration of suppression at the first and the last reflex contraction was not significantly different between two method of current delivery. The peak detrusor pressure ( P max ) were effectively suppressed by transcutaneous and percutaneous DPN stimulation. There were no statistically significant differences in baseline detrusor pressure ( P ini ), P max and suppressed pressure ( P sup ), between two stimulation techniques. Percutaneous electrical stimulation of neural pathway has definitive advantage compared with transcutaneous method. To get percutaneous stimulation into clinical practice, however, current limitation, such as, risk of infection, difficulties in placement to proper position, durability and affinity should be improved.