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While combating air pollution may seem to be a corporate responsibility, what individuals contribute can be substantial. This study explores the individual's behavioral intention to reduce the air pollution associated with vehicles, household appliances, and religious practices. An extended theory of planned behavior (TPB), past behavior included, serves as the analytical model, while the approach of partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) is employed in the model's estimation. The results show that subjective norms represent the primary driver of individual intentions to reduce air pollution, followed by perceived behavioral control, past behavior, and attitude, in that order. Surprisingly, advocacy on the part of the government to reduce the burning of incense and joss paper, disregarding years of social conflicts and protests, plays the most important role among all indicators within the construct subjective norms. This result holds even within the subsample of believers in religions that involve the practice of burning incense and joss paper.

More than 100 stone faces attributed to Teotihuacan were examined in seven North American and European collections to gain insights into their composition, manufacture and use. They were made from four stone types: limestone, travertine, serpentinite and listwanite, none of which is found near Teotihuacan. Differences in the stone type, facial style and drilling methods suggest they were made in multiple lapidary shops. Particles incidentally collected from 18 faces were examined by analytical scanning electron microscopy. Many particles are consistent with a granitic sand and diatomite. Based on this evidence, we propose that the stone faces were manufactured near the source of the raw material and transported to Teotihuacan as finished goods. Long thought to be funerary objects, it is likelier that the stone faces were used in an everyday ritual, and displayed as the centerpiece of a perishable construction similar to, but larger than, the elaborately decorated ceramic incense burners known as “theater” incensarios.

Mosquito-repellent incense is popular for dispelling mosquitos indoors in Asia, Africa and South America. However, the released large amounts of particulate and gaseous pollutants have a negative effect on human health. We conducted real-time measurements in laboratory chamber to characterize the particulate matter, volatile organic species (VOCs), reactive oxygen species (ROS) released from the Disc and Liquid mosquito-repellent incenses using. And further to evaluate the secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation potential indoors attributed to the main VOCs species and the health exposure risk. Results show that the disk type produces more particles but less VOCs. The particle number concentration produced by the disc and the liquid types were 130085 part/cm3 and 7963 part/cm3, respectively. The former one concentrated at the size bins below 100 nm, in comparison with the latter one mainly between 100 and 500 nm. Burning disk type produced particles carrying much higher oxidative potential (OP) 0.0430 nmol/mg. The VOCs species produced by the disc and liquid types were mainly VOC to m/z 79(benzene) and VOC to m/z 33(methanol), and the corresponding benzene concentration were 40.7 ppb and 58.6 ppb, respectively, and the methanol concentration was 26.3 ppb and 35.2 ppb, respectively. SOA formation rate related to benzene of liquid type using was larger compared to disk type, which was 0.015 mg/(m3s) and 0.012 mg/(m3s), respectively. The health risk assessment coefficient of the disc and liquid types were 6.2×10−5 and 9.1×10−5, respectively, both exceeding the limit of 1×10−6, indicating mosquito-repellent incenses is harmful to human health.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The paper discusses the traditional ritual, medicinal and insect repellent use of Dysphania schraderiana in Poland, a plant with little ethnobotanical and phytochemical data. Our research suggests that its properties should be further studied comparing it with the related D. botrys and D. ambrosioides. Aim of the work D. schraderiana is an aromatic and medicinal annual herb related to D. ambrosioides and D. botrys and practically absent from historical accounts of plant uses in Europe. The aim of this work is to characterise the current use of D. schraderiana in south east Poland on the background of historical Dysphania species use in Europe. Materials and methods The data on D. schraderiana was collected in 2020, based on interviews with 42 people in rural areas of south-eastern Poland where the species is used today. A range of textual sources were searched including old medicinal herbals, pharmaceutical handbooks, ethnobotanical publications and culinary databases regarding all the uses of Dysphania species in Europe. Results In the study area D. schraderiana occurs in the whole spectrum of cultivation stages – from being intentionally cultivated to completely wild. The plant is used mainly as an apotropaic and insect repellent, blessed during Catholic church holidays (mainly Assumption Day), and sometimes used as incense in churches (and blessed on Epiphany Day). D. schraderiana rarely occurs in European historical sources, except sometimes classed as a false, inferior form of D. botrys, which has been known for centuries as a moth repellent and treatment for respiratory illness. We hypothesise that the plant was not easily distinguished from D. botrys and their uses strongly overlapped. For some unknown reason the use of D. botrys died out, whereas a relatively large semi-feral population of D. schraderiana exists in south-eastern Poland where it has remained a culturally important plant. Conclusions D. schraderiana is a rare case of a non-native plant traditionally used within an area of Europe but previously nearly overlooked in European ethnobotanical literature. Historical uses of Dysphania spp. in other areas of Poland and former Poland (now western Ukraine) suggest that the genus was used more widely in regions beyond the one studied. However, a very compact distribution of use suggests that D. schraderiana may have been brought to SE Poland from a single source outside the study area. Its common name, and use as a holy incense plant, is associated it with the well-known biblical tree resin obtained from Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.

In this study we present the outdoor and indoor particulate matter (PM) and Black Carbon (BC) measurements in a typical terraced house, located in an urban area in the island of Malta. The influence of different household activities on the indoor PM2.5 and BC levels were also analysed. The activities resulting in elevated indoor concentrations included sweeping, cooking (not grilling and frying), grilling and frying and burning of candle and incense sticks. Sweeping resulted in the highest PM2.5 concentration (283.14 μg m−3) while frying resulted in the lowest level (104.14 μg m−3). Burning of paraffin wax candles resulted in the largest increases in indoor BC concentration (62.2 μg m−3) while the lowest peaks corresponded to cooking and frying. We estimated average PM2.5 and BC emission rates for each indoor activity reaching 22.19 μg s−1 during sweeping and 2.46 μg s−1 during burning of paraffin candles and incense sticks and were sensitive to different ventilation rates. Given that people spend substantial time in the home environment, especially with a future where remote work is likely to be further facilitated, identifying the activities and sources which lead to elevated indoor pollutants is crucial to limit indoor exposure.

Majority of countries across the globe have employed improving building ventilation, quarantine, social distancing, and disinfections as a general measure of preventing SARS-CoV-2 virus transmissions. However, arid Middle Eastern countries with hot climate (elevated outdoor temperature and humidity levels) are experiencing a different situation. Unfortunately, these harsh ambient climatic conditions in Middle Eastern countries make it impossible for most buildings to utilize natural/mechanical ventilation systems. Besides, indoor air temperatures of most buildings are very low due to overconsumption of air conditioning, thereby, it can be a potential factor of virus spread in most residential homes and public buildings. Most importantly, habitual indoor burning of incense which is the major source of coarse (PM10; aerodynamic diameter, Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image, Highlights • Poor indoor building ventilation may increase the spread of SARS-CoV-2 virus. • Low indoor temperature may activate the SARS-CoV-2 virus. • PM emissions due to indoor burning of incense could be a carrier of SARS-CoV-2 virus.

We carried out field measurements of aerosols in Lhasa, a major city in the Tibetan Plateau that has been experiencing fast urbanization and industrialization. Aerosol number size distribution was continuously measured using an optical particle size spectrometer near the center of Lhasa city during the Asian summer monsoon season in 2016. The mass concentration of fine particles was modulated by boundary layer dynamics, with an average of 11 μg m−3 and the high values exceeding 50 μg m−3 during religious holidays. Daytime high concentration coincided with the religious burning of biomass and incense in the temples during morning hours, which produced heavy smoke. Factor analysis revealed a factor that likely represented religious burning. The factor contributed 34% of the campaign-average fine particle mass and the contribution reached up to 80% during religious holidays. The mass size distribution of aerosols produced from religious burnings peaked at ∼500 nm, indicating that these particles could efficiently decrease visibility and promote health risk. Because of its significance, our results suggest that further studies of religious burning, a currently under-studied source, are needed in the Tibetan Plateau and in other regions of the world where religious burnings are frequently practiced.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The Maya have traditionally used copal, Protium copal, as incense during ceremonies since pre-Columbian times. Anecdotally, copal (when burned as incense), is thought to elicit mentally uplifting and calming effects. The main objective of this study was to determine whether the incense elicits anxiolytic-like behavior in animal models using rats. A second objective was to characterize active constituents and discern potential mechanism(s) of action, specifically the involvement of the GABAergic and endocannabinoid (eCB) systems. Despite the extensive Central American use of this resin, there are currently no known scientific behavioral or pharmacological studies done with the incense. Materials and methods Quantification of the triterpenes in the copal resin and cold trapped incense was achieved by HPLC MS. Behavioral effects in rats were assessed using the elevated plus maze (EPM), social interaction (SI) test, conditioned emotion response (CER) and Novel object recognition (NOR) paradigms. Rats were exposed to burning copal (200 mg) over 5 min in a smoking chamber apparatus and then immediately tested in each behavioral paradigm. Follow-up SI tests were done using two antagonists flumazenil (1 mg/kg) and AM251 (1 mg/kg) administered systemically. Inhibition of MAGL (monoacylglycerol lipase) was measured by microplate assay with recombinant human enzyme and probe substrate. Results Phytochemical analysis revealed that copal resin and incense had high α- and β-amyrins and low lupeol triterpene content. Exposure to Protium copal incense significantly reduced anxiety-like behavior in the SI and CER tests. In contrast, no anxiolytic effects were observed in the EPM. The CER effect was time dependent. Both flumazenil and AM251 blocked the anxiolytic activity of copal revealing the involvement of GABAergic and endocannabinoid systems. Copal, as well as the identified triterpenes, potently inhibited monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) activity in vitro (IC50 ≤ 811 ng/mL). Conclusions This is the first study to show that copal incense from Protium copal elicits anxiolytic-like effects in fear and social interaction models as evidenced by a reduced learned fear behavior and an increase in active social interaction. It's high α and β-amyrin content suggests behavioral effects may be mediated, in part, by the known action of these terpenes at the benzodiazepine receptor. Furthermore, P. copal's observed activity through the eCB system via MAGL offers a new potential mechanism underlying the anxiolytic activity.

Summary In the rapidly evolving ‘legal highs’ market, synthetic cannabinoids play a predominant role. These potent synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists produce effects similiar to those of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and are usually added to herbal smoking mixtures by soaking or spraying. Typical marketed as so-called herbal incense (potpourri), they are widely and openly sold on the web with the synthetic cannabinoids used in the mixtures continuously being substituted by ‘legal’ alternatives, in pace with new control measures. A seizure of ‘spice-like’ herbal incense was submitted to the laboratory for toxicological analysis. A methanolic sample solution was analyzed using liquid chromatography with diode array detector and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The μ-opioid receptor agonist U-47700 was found to be the only psychoactive substance present in the herbal mixture. Although considerable inter-batch differences in the concentration can be expected, a quantitative determination was performed in order to obtain an indication regarding the potency of the seized herbal mixture. In light of the emerging threat of synthetic opioids fatalities, the presence of U-47700 in ‘spice-like’ herbal incense raises great concerns, since the abuse may pose serious risk, as users will likely not be aware that they are using a potent synthetic opioid. This case illustrates once again that new psychoactive active substances openly sold on the Internet as ‘legal highs’ pose a risk for public health.

Indoor fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is hazardous to human health. Indoor PM2.5 pollution can have indoor and outdoor sources. Outdoor sources enter the house mainly through infiltration and are difficult to control. In contrast, smoking, incense burning, and cooking are important indoor sources, and the PM2.5 concentration can be reduced by various purification methods. This study monitored PM2.5 concentrations from different indoor sources in winter and summer and evaluated the attenuation of indoor PM2.5 for different purification methods (natural attenuation, natural ventilation, air purifier, and air purifier & natural ventilation). The objective was to analyze the effect of air purifiers on indoor PM2.5 concentrations and human health using the USEtox model. The results showed that cooking fumes provided the largest contribution and smoking the smallest contribution to indoor PM2.5. The purification efficiency of air purifiers to reduce the concentrations of PM2.5 produced by smoking, incense burning, and cooking ranged from 61.79% to 86.41%, 43.48% to 83.98%, and 51.10% to 61.62%, respectively. Air purifiers reduced population health damage by 43.47% to 86.46%. The results demonstrate that air purifiers are effective for indoor PM2.5 control and population health interventions.

Incense burning is a common cultural and religious practice in many Asian countries, including Vietnam. However, there is scarce information about the impact of incense burning in the residential indoor environment. In this study, we quantified the concentrations of PM2.5 indoor and outdoor and assessed the influence of incense burning on indoor air quality at residential houses in Hanoi, Vietnam. Three AirVisual Pro monitors were used to simultaneously and continuously measure PM2.5 concentrations, both indoor and outdoor for one week at each of 32 urban residential homes. Over 47 % of the homes had a daily average indoor PM2.5 concentration greater than 50 μg/m3, the recommended guideline in Vietnam. The daily average indoor PM2.5 concentration in the homes was 52.1 ± 33.9 μg/m3, while the corresponding outdoor concentration was 54.4 ± 37.6 μg/m3. These values were significantly higher in homes that burnt incense, with mean concentrations in a room during an incense burning event being 201.3 ± 132.2 μg/m3 with a 1 min-average peak of 825.5 μg/m3. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that, incense burning increased the geometric mean of indoor PM2.5 concentration by 120 %, after adjusting for other factors. Our results indicated the need for raising public awareness on the impact of incense burning on air quality in household environments.

Pogostemon cablin Benth. is a medicinal herb and member of the Lamiaceae family. P. cablin incense serves as an important raw material for the production of specific chemicals and pharmaceutical compounds, and as such, the demand for such incense has been rising annually. It is therefore critical that researchers establish the environmental factors that influence optimal P. cablin growth and development. Herein, we have sought to predict potential regions for future cultivation of this medicinal herb and have developed a theoretical framework for such cultivation. For this analysis, we utilized geographic records pertaining to the planting of P. cablin collected in recent years via field visits. These records, together with 19 environmental variables, we utilized for maximum entropy algorithm (MaxEnt) modeling and an ArcGIS 10.2 software analysis in an effort to identify the key environmental parameters associated with P. cablin cultivation. The primary factors associated with P. cablin cultivation outcomes were ultimately found to be mean annual temperature, mean temperature of the warmest quarter, max temperature of the coldest month, and mean temperature of driest quarter. These results suggested that southwestern Guangdong, a small portion of central Guangdong, and southern Hainan are all highly suited to P. cablin cultivation, while southeastern Guangxi and the majority of the area outside of central Guangdong are moderately well suited to such cultivation, and the more suitable regions for artificial P. cablin cultivation will be accessible in the future. Together, our data provide a theoretical framework for the optimal planting and growth of this important medicinal herb, thereby reducing the manpower and material resources associated with its cultivation.

Two optical technique: laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and single particle aerosol mass spectrometry (SPAMS) were combined to study Tibetan incense. The ash and smoke of Tibetan incense were online detected with LIBS, and there existed more metal elements in the ash, such as Fe, Mg, Ba, Sr, Mn and so on. SPAMS technique focused on online recording mass spectra of the smoke, and the positive and negative ion spectra were obtained. What’s more, the lead isotopes in Tibetan incense smoke were analyzed and four isotopes (m/z = 204, 206, 207 and 208) were all observed in the mass spectrum. The principal component analysis (PCA) model was also introduced to achieve the clustering and classification of incenses, which could provide a reference for the traceability of particulate matter.

In order for second-generation feedstocks to be fed back to circular economies, both economic and environmental benefits of the thermochemical conversion need to be maximized in the context of the cradle-to-grave/cradle waste management. This study aimed to quantify and optimize the combustion performance and flue gas emissions of incense sticks (IS). The IS combustion consisted of three stages, with a main weight loss of 69.6% between 185 and 477 °C at 10 °C/min. Mean activation energy was estimated at 157.4 and 251.7 kJ/mol for the main second and third reaction stages. CO2 and H2O were the main evolved gases, while NH3 and SO2 exhibited a similar release pattern by peaking at 320 °C. Multivariate Gaussian process model-based optimizations pointed to 525 °C as the optimal setting for both three combustion responses and the emission reduction of nine flue gases. A 63% rise in the combustion temperature from 322 to 525 °C on average reduced the emissions by 79%.

This study investigated allergenic terpenol compounds in incense powder and smoke. The powder of two Thai brands contained higher concentrations of terpenols up to 6.15 times higher than those of two Taiwanese brands. Consequently, Thai incense makers face a higher potential risk of contact dermatitis than Taiwanese incense makers do. d -Limonene was the primary terpenol compound in the powder of Thai B (64.0%) and Thai Y (31.5%), sold in Thailand. By contrast, anisyl alcohol was the primary terpenol compound in the powder of LST (40.3%) and SC (37.7%), sold in Taiwan. After the four brands of incense were ignited, their mean PM 2.5 emission factor was 18.02 ± 6.20 mg g − 1 incense. The PM 2.5 mass emission factors of the Taiwanese brands were far higher than those of the Thai brands, and so were the PM 2.5 terpenol emission factors, showing that the smokes of the Taiwanese incense were potentially more allergenic than those of the Thai incense. Geraniol, the most allergenic terpenol compound, was 2.8%–10.7% of total terpenol compounds in the powder of the four brands, yet was the main contributor to PM 2.5 , constituting 66.3%–83.5% of terpenol compounds in the smokes of the four brands. Furthermore, geraniol exhibited an IP ratio, defined as the incense/powder (IP) ratio of terpenol-related species, > 1 in all four brands, and > 5 in the Taiwanese brands, suggesting a greater health risk with the smoke from the Taiwanese incense. The IP ratios of other terpenol species were all 1, meaning that the generation of PM 2.5 terpenol compounds was potentially enhanced by indoor lighting.

This study firstly investigated the species, concentration variation, and emission factors of mercury emitted from the burning of incenses and joss papers in an Asian temple. Both indoor and outdoor speciated mercury (GEM, GOM, and PHg) were sampled by manual samplers, while ambient GEM at an indoor site was in-situ monitored by a continuous GEM monitor. Field measurement results showed that the total atmospheric mercury (TAM) concentrations in indoor and outdoor environments were in the range of 8.03-35.72 and 6.03-31.35 ng/m3, respectively. The indoor and outdoor ratios (I/O) of TAM in the daytime and at nighttime were in the range of 0.64-0.90 and 1.50-2.04, respectively. The concentrations of GEM, GOM, and PHg during the holiday periods were approximately 1-4 times higher than those during the non-holiday periods. GEM was the dominant mercury species in the indoor and outdoor environments and accounted for 63-81% of TAM, while the oxidized mercury accounted for 19-37% of TAM. Burning incenses and joss papers in a combustion chamber showed that the concentration of GEM from joss paper burning ranged from 4.07 to 11.62 μg/m3, or about 13.97 times higher than that of incense burning, while the concentration of PHg from incense burning ranged from 95.91 to 135.07 ng/m3, or about 3.29 times higher than that of joss paper burning. The emission factors of incense burning were 10.39 ng/g of GEM and 1.40 ng/g of PHg, while those of joss paper burning were 12.65 ng/g of GEM and 1.27 ng/g of PHg, respectively. This study revealed that speciated mercury emitted from worship activities had significant influence on the indoor and outdoor mercury concentrations in an Asian temple. Higher intensity of worship activities during holidays resulted in a higher concentration of speciated mercury in indoor and outdoor air, which might cause health threats to worshipers, staffs, and surrounding inhabitants through long-term exposure.

Few studies have illustrated the effects of residential environmental conditions on prevalence of allergic disease for adults. A cross-sectional study with 17898 valid samples from parents of preschool children was carried out during 2010-2011 in Shanghai, China. The allergic symptoms of these participants were surveyed; meanwhile the building characteristics, environmental exposures and lifestyle behaviors were all reported by the questionnaires. Pearson’s Chi-square (χ2), Gamma correlation analysis and logistic regression analysis were applied to investigate associations between building characteristics, lifestyle and their allergic symptoms. The results displayed that interior renovation or adding new furniture, home dampness-related indicators and the residential distance within 200 meters of the traffic trunk or highway, using incense and so on were the significant risk factors for allergic symptoms (p 1), while exposing the bedding to sunshine is a protective factor, so we can draw that controlling indoor air pollution and the residential dampness-related indicators, as well as changing the bad habits are the effective measures to prevent allergic symptoms.

Rapid urbanization, exponentially growing human count and industrial expansion has made it problematic to manage the municipal solid wastes throughout the globe. In developing countries like India, decentralized waste management systems have induced difficult scenario. The total solid wastes generated in the country, due to various cultural, social and religious activities, are about 40%–50%organic in nature and contributing in the environmental pollution (air, water and soil) as well as human health troubles. It is also significant to manage the organic flower waste, as it is being discarded after single use in many religious rituals, social celebrations etc. and amounts to approximately 4.74 × 106 t/d, in the country. Flower waste can be managed by converting it into consumable herbal products such as incense sticks, perfumes, interior decorative items, natural colors for cotton & silk products, composts, bio-gas etc. Some researchers have developed ecofriendly bio-sorbents to remove toxic dyes and heavy metals (using flower petals) from the aqueous solutions. In addition, properly managed disposal of floral waste will help in reduction of the environmental pollution as well as in achieving about 60% sustainable development goals suggested by United Nations.

Roses with strong tea scents contain diverse volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with commercial applications. Novel wild tea scented roses were discovered in Yunnan Province, China. This study aimed to identify components extracted from tea scent roses and explore their classification status. Eighty-six VOCs were extracted by direct thermal desorption and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Sensory and incense tone compound evaluation revealed five tea scent, one wood honey scent, one damask modern scent and three fruity scent rose samples. Principal components analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis of VOCs suggested that Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet. and R. chinensis Jacq. may be involved in the evolution of R. sect. complexes that result in characteristic scents. This study provides a valuable reference for species identification, fragrant flower breeding, essential oil production and cultivation selection of roses.

An analysis of paints found in ceramic sherd palettes from the 18th Dynasty (1548-1302 BCE) Pharaonic town on Sai Island in Upper Nubia using polarised light microscopy and infrared spectroscopy revealed pigments from the standard Egyptian repertoire: red and yellow ochres, Egyptian blue, calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, and the bright white huntite. Orange-yellow residues in ceramic sherds from the town were analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and were identified as Pistacia sp. resin, probably for use as incense. A dark organic substance from a vessel in the elite Pharaonic cemetery of the island was analysed using a second GC–MS method and was shown to be bitumen. Biomarkers in the bitumen indicate that its source may be the same as a sample from another Pharaonic town in Upper Nubia, suggesting a possible Nubian source. This is one of the earliest identifications of the use of bitumen in a funerary context in the ancient Nile Valley, and the furthest southern example yet analysed. Black fluids containing bitumen were used in Egypt as part of the process of mummification and for funerary anointing rituals; it is likely that the bitumen material at Sai was related to these practices.

There is increasing public attention on exposure to PM2.5 and its related health impacts. It is essential to study the pollution levels, sources, and health implications of indoor PM2.5, especially for residential homes, as people tend to spend most of their time indoors. The indoor PM2.5 mass and organic/elemental carbon (OC/EC) during winter and early spring period of 2016–2017 at 68 residential households in four large Chinese cities (i.e. Hong Kong, Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Xi'an) were studied. Average indoor PM2.5 varied by two-fold, lowest in Hong Kong (34.0 ± 14.6 μg m−3) and highest in Xi'an (78.7 ± 49.3 μg m−3), with comparable levels for Guangzhou (47.2 ± 5.4 μg m−3) and Shanghai (50.3 ± 17.9 μg m−3). Lowest air exchange rate (AER, 0.8 ± 0.8 h−1) and PM2.5 indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratio (0.72 ± 0.23) were found for Xi'an households, indicating the limited influence from indoor sources, while importance of indoor PM2.5 sources is signified with the highest PM2.5 I/O ratio (1.32 ± 0.43) identified for Shanghai households. For households in four cities, OC and EC accounted for 29.5%–38.5% and 7.5%–8.9% of the indoor PM2.5 mass, indicating the significance of carbonaceous aerosols. Larger differences between indoor and outdoor OC (2.6–8.4%) than EC (−2.2–1.5%) indicate the presence of indoor OC sources. Decreasing trends of PM2.5 I/O ratio and indoor OC proportion were found as the worsening ambient air quality. On average, 11.8 μg m−3 (23.1%) and 3.02 μg m−3 (18.7%) higher indoor PM2.5 and OC concentrations were identified for households with other indoor combustions (e.g., tobacco smoking, incense burning) compared to those with only cooking activities. For Hong Kong and Shanghai households, increments of 13.2 μg m−3 (54.1%) of PM2.5 and 4.1 μg m−3 (45.4%) of OC were found at households with cooking activities as compared to households with no specific indoor combustion.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Aquilaria spp. (agarwood) has been a part of Ayurvedic and Traditional Chinese Medicine for centuries. Agarwood has also been used as a traditional medicine in Southeast Asian countries, Bangladesh and Tibet. Its common uses include the treatment of joint pain, inflammatory-related ailments, and diarrhoea, as well as a stimulant, sedative and cardioprotective agent. In this paper, we aim to provide an overview of the phytochemistry, ethnomedicinal use, pharmacological activities and safety of plant materials from Aquilaria spp. as an evidence base to further appraise its potential use as a source of health beneficial compounds. Materials and methods Literature abstracts and full text articles from journals, books, reports and electronic searches (Google Scholar, Elsevier, PubMed, Read Cube, Scopus, Springer, and Web of Science), as well as from other relevant websites, are surveyed, analysed and included in this review. Results A literature survey of agarwood plant materials showed that they contain sesquiterpenes, 2(-2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-4-one derivatives, genkwanins, mangiferins, iriflophenones, cucurbitacins, terpenoids and phenolic acids. The crude extracts and some of the isolated compounds exhibit anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, anti-ischemic, anti-microbial, hepatoprotective, laxative, and mosquitocidal properties and effects on the central nervous system. Agarwood plant materials are considered to be safe based on the doses tested. However, the toxicity and safety of the materials, including the smoke from agarwood incense burning, should be further investigated. Future research should be directed towards the bio-guided isolation of bioactive compounds with proper chemical characterisation and investigations of the underlying mechanisms towards drug discovery. Conclusions The traditional medicinal use of agarwood plant materials has provided clues to their pharmacological properties. Indeed, agarwood contains a plethora of bioactive compounds that now elegantly support their use in traditional medicine. As wild agarwood trees are critically endangered and vulnerable, sustainable agricultural and forestry practices are necessary for the further development and utilization of agarwood as a source of health beneficial compounds.

Incense burning produces potentially harmful particulate matter. In this study we investigated the emissions of PM2.5 and gaseous acetic acid from four brands of traditional incense; Liao and Shang Lao Shan (SLS), sold in Taiwan, and Thai Yellow (Thai Y) and Thai Black (Thai B), sold in Thailand. Additionally, photochemical reactions of PM2.5 carboxylates emitted from incense burning were studied via a simulated light experiment. The average PM2.5 mass emission factor of each incense type was inversely correlated with the ash production of that incense. The Thailand incense carboxylate emissions were markedly higher than the Taiwan incense. Acetate accounted for 87.46% of total carboxylate emissions, with acetate emitted from the Thailand incense 1.26 times higher than from the Taiwan incense. Phthalate was detected in the PM2.5, indicating the presence of plasticizer. Concentrations of PM2.5 acetate, formate, pyruvate, glutarate, succinate, fumarate and tartarate were reduced in simulated light (51.5%–97.1% of those under dark), indicating that these seven types of carboxylate are easily photodegradable. In contrast, malonate, maleate, oxalate and phthalate concentrations in light were 1.17–1.84 times higher than in darkness, indicating photochemical reactions contribute to the formation of these species. The formation of the low-molecular weight dicarboxylates oxalate and malonate was most noticeable. Acetic acid, highly irritating to the respiratory system and skin, was present at high levels for all four incense types, as shown by the gaseous acetic acid/PM2.5 acetate ratios of 1.03–3.61. Burning incense indoors can generate high concentrations of PM2.5 acetate that increases the risks of respiratory and contact irritation, particularly when burning the Thailand incense. Moreover, burning incense in poorly ventilated, dimly lit indoor areas (e.g., temples and homes) can markedly increase the risk of irritation because the gaseous acetic acid is not degraded as it would be in light.

The modern paradigm of aromatherapy is based on in vitro assays of pure volatile organic compounds (as an essential oil), with activity at non-clinically significant concentrations. Yet traditional use of aromatic species did not involve pure essential oils because hydrodistillation was only invented in relatively recent times (estimated 1200 AD). Instead, more complex ‘full-bodied’ extracts and blends were made by following unsophisticated extraction processes resulting in mixtures of volatile organic compounds and non-volatile (fixed) metabolites. The first humans on earth were the first to experiment with aromatic medicinal plants. The close interaction between humans and aromatic plants during evolution encourages us to consider how it has informed natural selection. Modern biology has revealed a kind of specialised metabolism of natural products that recycles conjugated xenobiotics in infectious/inflammatory tissues via the secretion of β-glucuronidase. Informed by in vitro and chemical evidence, the current review narrates the philosophical argument that traditional methods of aromatic medicinal plant use in prehistoric cultures achieves tangible positive effects. What we learn from the ‘cradle of incense’ is that full-bodied extraction of aromatic medicinal plants (or aromatic exudates) can sometimes be better than hydrodistilled essential oils from the same species. This is because volatile organic compounds are more powerful when combined with other products where they act as gene expression modulators, potentiators or synergistic ingredients in deriving therapeutic outcomes.

The present investigation assessed the applicability of incense stick ash, a novel and sustainable adsorbent for remediation of Victoria Blue dye from wastewater. Incense stick ash, without any physical and chemical treatment has been applied to investigate the influence of various experimental parameters as pH, loading of adsorbent, concentration, shaking time, temperature and ionic strength on Victoria Blue remediation in a batch operation. Incense stick ash was characterized using BET, DLS, SEM-EDS, FTIR and XRD techniques. BET surface area, pore volume and pore diameter of incense stick ash are obtained as 2.245 m2 g−1, 0.0118 cm3 g−1 and 21.02 nm, respectively. Average particle size of the adsorbent is obtained as 293.2 nm. Goodness of the fit of isotherm and kinetic model to the reported data was identified based on chi squared and coefficient of determination values. Isotherm and kinetic behavior was best represented by Freundlich and pseudo 2nd order equation, respectively. Boyd model confirmed involvement of film diffusion mechanism along with intra-particle for adsorption of Victoria Blue on incense stick ash. Maximum dye uptake was reported as 105.57 mg g−1. Thermodynamic study revealed spontaneous and favorable adsorption of Victoria Blue on incense stick ash at higher temperature. The performed elution and subsequent regeneration study implied desorption capability of incense stick ash and its applicability as a fresh adsorbent for further cycle of adsorption. The overall study implied scavenging potential of incense stick ash, a novel and sustainable adsorbent available at zero cost towards Victoria Blue removal.

The present work concerns the study of the concentration of Total Suspended Powders (TSP) mainly from uncombusted residues of smoke candles or incense. The aim is identifying the most critical situations for the preservation and conservation in situ of works of sacred art, normally exposed to the veneration of the faithful. These peculiar types of works of art cannot be placed out of context. This because the artifact is an object of worship for many years, it is often object to physical contati by the faithful, subjected to frequent expositions and microclimate changes. Also it suffers an intensive smoking derived from incense and votive candles. The experimental analysis carried out by the authors concerned the monitoring of TSP in the niche of the SS. Crucifix in the Church of St. Papino in Milazzo (ME). The niche, as well as the wooden statue of the Crucified contained, includes a great variety of objects of different nature: bone relics, scrolls, tapestries, precious votive offerings. At present all this precious material is been pouring in clear degradation. The monitoring of TSP was performed using a particle counter and a extractor plug with a collection filter for the gravimetric test. Tools have provided quantitative data of the number of particles per unit volume and the value of particles mass per unit volume, respectively. Then it was possible to determine a correlation marker between the two different instrumental control methods. Scanning electronic microscope analysis, applied to the samples collected, also provided detailed indication on the nature of various inorganic components stored on filters. The research results will lead to the definition of new screening equipment useful for particulate matter filtering or suppression, specifically in churches. These devices can be validated by subsequent and more detailed monitoring surveys.

We investigated the emission characteristics of the allergenic aromatics eugenol and related compounds and vanillin from the incense powder and the PM2.5 emitted from burning Hsin Shan (HSIN), Shang Chen (SC), Shang Lao Shan (SLS) and Lao Shang Tou (LST) incense sticks. The powder produced 590.7–72.5 μg of fragrant compounds g−1 of incense powder, ranking HSIN >> SLS > LST ∼ SC, with vanillin representing 65.83–71.46% of the total, while the PM2.5 produced a higher 870.8–593.7 μg of fragrant compounds g−1 of incense, ranking HSIN >> SC >> LST > SLS, with methyl isoeugenol the most prevalent compound, at 48.13–56.59% of the total, followed by vanillin. Burning caused some transformation of isoeugenol and methyl isoeugenol into the cis-type and hence both trans and cis types were present in the PM2.5. The ratio of total fragrant compounds in smoke PM2.5 to the content per gram of incense powder (IPt ratio) in the four types of incense ranged from 1.153 (SLS) to 1.507 (SC), indicating that incense powder produces a substantial amount of total fragrant compounds when burned. The ratio of fragrant emission factors in smoke PM2.5 to the content per gram of incense powder (IPs ratio) of methyl eugenol, vanillin, and eugenol was

Burning Arabian incense (Bakhour) is a common practice in the Middle East and Arabian Gulf. Although the incense generates large amounts of chemicals and air pollutants, little is known with regard to the nature of these chemicals and their potential health risks. The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive characterization of the chemical constituents emitted in Bakhour smoke, and subsequently to examine the associated health implications of these components. Thermo-gravimetric analysis was used to investigate the presence and the thermal profile of volatile organic compounds in three different samples of Bakhour smoke. Thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was then applied to isolate all the volatile and semi-volatile compounds present in the Bakhour smoke samples. Using a spectral library and an extensive literature search, all organic compounds detected were analyzed for potential health risks. A total of 859 compounds were emitted from burning the different Bakhour samples. The novel finding of this research shows that 42 detected compounds are suspected/known carcinogens, 20 are known to have toxic effects, and at least 200 compounds are known irritants to the eyes, skin, respiratory and digestive tracts, as reported in human and/or animal studies. Our study suggests that inhaled Bakhour smoke contains a substantial number of adverse compounds, which are known to be detrimental to human health. Moreover, the evidence presented shows that incense burning is a significant source of environmental pollution; with the potential of significant health concerns particularly with long term exposure. As the majority of the compounds detected have no reported clinical data, there is an urgent need for significant research in this field.

To investigate the air pollution due to incenses burning, formaldehyde, respirable particulate (PM10) and 12 kinds of VOCs (volatile organic compounds) and TVOC were measured and analyzed at different sampling sites in Temples located in Shanxi Province and Beijing, China. The main results showed that incense burning significantly elevates the concentrations of formaldehyde, benzene, toluene, xylene, and TVOC. The total concentrations of aldehyde compounds including formaldehyde, furfural, etc. varied ranging from 0.05 to 1.22 mg/m3 and formaldehyde was the most abundant. The formaldehyde concentrations higher than 0.10 mg/m3 in Beijing Temple were harmful to human health. Benzene and toluene concentrations exceeded the recommended levels 0.05 mg/m3 by ‘WHO’, respectively. The number concentrations of PM10 in a Shanxi Temple were the highest and PM10 in all the Temples were greater than that outside Temples. It indicates that incense burning was the main source for formaldehyde, VOCs and respirable particle. The health risk for Buddhist priest, staffs and worshipers in the Temples exposed to incense burning for long time may be increased.

This study presents the chemical analysis of an amorphous organic residue extracted from a 7th–early 8th century CE brass artefact from the trading port of Unguja Ukuu, Zanzibar, Tanzania, hypothesised to be an incense burner. The artefact is a very rare and highly significant find in East Africa, with only one other example being found previously (also at the same site), and likely represents early contact between coastal East Africa and the Indian Ocean world. Chemical analysis of the residue adhering to this artefact was undertaken to confirm its use to burn incense, and to determine whether the resin used was local or exotic to East Africa and thus likely acquired through long-distance trade. The residue extract was analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy (GC–MS) and identified as Zanzibar copal (Hymenaea verrucosa Gaertn.), a local species that rose to major importance in colonial period trade. The results obtained from this study provide the first direct archaeological evidence for the ancient use of this East African species as an aromatic, suggesting that it might have had a much earlier role in long-distance incense trade than previously demonstrated. This finding also provides insights into local East African engagement with the material culture of the Indian Ocean world.

The main purposes of this research are to study the way of using Sufficiency Economy Philosophy in raw materials production management and the knowledge transfer to the community. Data are collected from in- depth interview, observation, and training session. The knowledge from this research is transferred to the community by narration, demonstration, inquiry and handout. A significant result shows that using local raw materials and ingredients from herb to make sure of sources, safety and cost reducing. Regarding knowledge transfer, two-way communication with personal media or opinion leaders is the suitable way to educate community members.

Incense sticks and mustard oil are the two most popular combustion fuels during rituals and social ceremonies in Asian countries. Given their widespread use in both closed and open burning activities, it is important to quantify the spectral radiative properties of aerosols emitted from the combustion of both fuels. This information is needed by climate models to assess the impact of these aerosols on radiative forcing. In this study, we used a 3-wavelength integrated photoacoustic-nephelometer – operating simultaneously at 405, 532 and 781 nm – to measure the optical coefficients of aerosols emitted from the laboratory combustion of mustard oil lamp and two types of incense sticks. From the measured optical coefficients at three wavelengths, time-varying single scattering albedo (SSA), absorption Angstrom exponent (AAE), and scattering Angstrom exponent (SAE) were calculated. For incense smoke particles, the time-averaged mean AAE values were found to be as high as 8.32 (between 405 and 532 nm) and 6.48 (between 532 and 781 nm). This spectrally-varying characteristic of AAE indicates that brown carbon – a class of organic carbon which strongly absorbs solar radiation in the blue and near ultraviolet – is the primary component of incense smoke aerosols. For aerosols emitted from the burning of mustard oil lamp, the time-averaged mean AAE values were ∼1.3 (between 405 and 781 nm) indicating that black carbon (BC) is the primary constituent. Scanning electron microscopy combined with image processing revealed the morphology of incense smoke aerosols to be non-coalescing and weakly-bound aggregates with a mean two-dimensional (2-d) fractal dimension (Df)=1.9±0.07, while the mustard oil smoke aerosols had typical fractal-like BC aggregate morphology with a mean 2-d Df=1.85±0.09.

Aim of the study Characterization and comparative analysis of the main VOCs (volatile organic compounds) present in the smoke of 11 experimentally combusted plant species used as incense in Shaxi, Southwest China. Substances which may be responsible for the pleasant smell of the smokes as well as substances with a potential pharmacological activity are discussed. Materials and methods We adopt the dynamic headspace sorption method for the collection of smoke samples as a novel methodological approach in ethnobotany. The VOCs were identified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Principal component analysis and canonical discriminant analysis were performed using PASW statistics (Version 18.0.2). Results Among the identified compounds were 10 monoterpenoids, 7 sesquiterpenoids, 6 linear hydrocarbons, 6 methoxy phenolics, 2 benzenoids, 2 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and 2 fatty acids. Based on their volatile profiles, the species are well clustered intraspecifically and separated interspecifically. The most abundant among the compounds potentially responsible for the pleasant smells of the smokes are methyl salicylate (12.28 ± 3.90%) for Gaultheria fragrantissima leaves, δ-cadinene (15.58 ± 2.29%) for Juniperus squamata wood, and α-Pinene for Cupressus funebris branches (9.16 ± 7.73%) and Pistacia weinmanniifolia branches (19.52 ± 8.66%). A couple of substances found are known for pharmacological activity, such as methylsalycilate, beta-caryophyllene and cedrol. Conclusions The species used by the local people in Shaxi for incense differ clearly with respect to the chemical compounds of their smoke. Further, incense contains substances, which are of pharmacological interest and might support medicinal uses of smoke. Cedrol with its pleasant smell and sedative properties may be an important factor why specific plants are chosen as incense. Our findings support the idea that the effects of the use of incense as well as medicinal smoke depend on both, the cultural as well as the pharmacological context.

Incense burning is an important indoor source of airborne particles. In this study, the emission factors of PM 2.5 and its chemical constituents emitted from six different brands of incense sticks were determined. Controlled experiments were conducted to measure the mass concentration of PM 2.5 and to determine its chemical composition (elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), metals, and ions). Measurements showed that the emissions vary for different brands of incense sticks, with smokeless incense sticks emitting the least amount. PM 2.5 emission factors range from 0.4 (smokeless incense stick) to 44.5 mg/g. Results also show that the amount of metals emitted is highly dependent on the quantity of metals present in the incense sticks. In addition, the information obtained from the controlled experiments is used to predict the concentration of PM 2.5 at incense smoke-influenced microenvironments, such as temples and homes, in order to assess the potential indoor exposure during the course of incense burning. Comparison with indoor air quality guidelines suggests that inhalation of incense smoke can pose adverse health impacts.

Recently, several cases across Germany were reported where teenagers were hospitalized showing severe side effects after consumption of a new "Spice-like" herbal incense called "Lava red". The active component of "Lava red", obtained from German internet shops, was isolated by silica gel column chromatography and the structure was elucidated by NMR methods. It is a known N-alkyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (CAS No.: 619294-47-2) JWH-122 which was synthesized recently as model component for in vitro drug testing. The structure is related to compounds that were used two years ago (JWH-018, JWH-073) as synthetic cannabimimetics in similar incense products which are now banned as illegal drugs in Germany and several other European countries. The concentration of JWH-122 was estimated to be 82mg/g product. The isolated compound was further analyzed by different spectroscopic and mass spectrometry techniques to obtain a complete dataset of the physico-chemical properties of the molecule. The data presented here is useful for easy and fast detection of JWH-122 in trace amounts in complex matrices.

Aerosol from the burning two types of sandalwood-based incense, Hsing Shan and Lao Shan , was analyzed to characterize the chemical profile of total particulate matter emitted. The total particulate matter (PM) mass emission factors were 46.3 ± 2.68 mg g −1 of Hsing Shan incense and 43.7 ± 1.08 mg g −1 of Lao Shan incense. Chemical analysis of emissions from the two types of incense revealed that of the 25 components in four groups characterized, anhydrosugars formed the major group, at 46.7–52.2% w/w of the identified particulate and 1078.3–1169.8 μg g −1 of incense, followed by inorganic salts at 30.4–31.8% w/w of identified particulate and 681.6–734.0 μg g −1 of incense, carboxylic acids at 12.0–17.1% w/w of the identified particulate and 268.6–392.8 μg g −1 of incense, and sugar alcohols at 4.44–5.38% w/w of the identified particulate and 102.3–120.6 μg g −1 of incense. More anhydrosugars and sugar alcohols were emitted from Lao Shan incense than from Hsing Shan incense whereas more carboxylic acids and organic salts were emitted from Hsing Shan than from Lao Shan . These differences were due to structural and functional differences in the young sandalwood used to make Hsing Shan and the aged sandalwood used to make Lao Shan . The anhydrosugar levoglucosan, used as a marker of biomass burning, was always the most abundant species in emitted PM for both incenses ( Lao Shan 21.7 mg g −1 of PM and Hsing Shan 18.7 mg g −1 ). K + and Cl − were the second most abundant components (K + and Cl − were summed), accounting for 10.6 mg g −1 of Hsing Shan PM and 9.85 mg g −1 of Lao Shan PM. The most abundant carboxylic acids in the emissions were formic, acetic, succinic, glutaric and phthalic acid. The latter is a fragrance ingredient and a potential health hazard and was twice as prevalent in Lao Shan emissions. Xylitol was the most prevalent of the sugar alcohols at 35.7–36.6% w/w of total identified sugar alcohols. These abundant species are potential markers for incense burning. K + , levoglucosan, mannosan and xylitol are already reported in discriminator ratios for wood burning and it is proposed here that these can and should also apply to incense burning. The calculated discriminator ratios for two types of incense burning reported here are 0.229–0.288 for K/Levo, 12.5–13.5 for Levo/Manno, and 21.5–23.7 for the novel discriminator ratio Levo/Xylitol.

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) may cause adverse health effects. However, PCDD/F emissions from burning incense in temples have rarely been addressed. This study investigates PCDD/F emissions from burning incense in a temple. The mean total PCDD/F concentrations were 72.4-82.2 pg Nm(-3) at two indoor sites; their corresponding mean total PCDD/Fs I-TEQ concentrations (0.24-0.27 pg I-TEQ Nm(-3)) were approximately 11 times that at a background location. In air samples collected from burning incense, OCDFs accounted for approximately 90% of total PCDD/Fs at the two indoor sites and an outdoor site near the temple, while the major PCDD/Fs in incense ash were PCDDs. The total PCDD/F content and toxic equivalent value of incense ash were 617 pg g(-1) and 1.55 pg I-TEQ g(-1), respectively. At the three sites inside/outside the temple, the air and ash samples contained the same four primary PCDD/Fs-OCDD, 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD, OCDF and 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF. The Cl- emission factor, which is related to the PCDD/F formation, from burning incense was 0.454 mg g(-1). The resultant lifetime average daily dose and cancer risk for temple workers were 0.00964 pg I-TEQ day(-1) kg(-1) and 9.64 x 10(-6), respectively, approximately 2 times that for residents near the temple (0.00489 pg I-TEQ day(-1) kg(-1) and 4.89 x 10(-6), respectively). We suggest that the chlorine content in incense must be regulated, and the high risk of PCDD/F exposure from burning incense for temple workers and visitors should be of concern.

We proposed an integrated probabilistic risk assessment framework based on reported data to quantify human health risks of temple goers/workers to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from incense burning in typical Taiwanese temples. The framework probabilistically integrates exposure, human respiratory tract, and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) models to quantitatively estimate size-dependent PAHs exposure in human lung regions and cancer risks for temple goers (moderate and high exposures) and temple workers (extreme exposure). Our results show that the ILCRs are greater than the acceptable level of 10(-6) for extreme and high exposure groups through inhalation route. The result also indicates that the higher ILCRs (10(-6) to 10(-4)) are found in ingestion and dermal contact routes for temple goers/workers. For personal extreme exposure to carcinogenic PAH in the temple, 95% probability total ILCR (TILCR) (9.87 x 10(-4) to 1.13 x 10(-3)) is much greater than the range of 10(-6) to 10(-4), indicating high potential health risk to temple workers. For temple goers with high and moderate exposure groups, however, the 95% probability TILCRs were estimated from 6.44 x 10(-5) to 7.50 x 10(-5) and 5.75 x 10(-6) to 6.99 x 10(-6), respectively. This study successfully offers a scientific basis for risk analysis due to incense burning to enhance broad risk management strategies for temple indoor air quality.

This study reports comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography hyphenated to time-of-flight mass spectrometry detection (GC × GC/TOFMS) for characterisation and identification of components generated by four different types of powdered incense headspace (H/S) and incense smoke. GC × GC/TOFMS allowed simultaneous separation and identification of compounds emitted into the atmosphere as a result of combustion of incense powder. The smoke stream comprised compounds originating from the incense powder, and combustion products such as saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, essential oil type compounds, nitromusks, fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, which possibly include oxygenated and nitrated PAH), N-heterocyclics, pyrans and furans, which were detected and tentatively identified by GC × GC/TOFMS. GC × GC-electron capture detector/nitrogen phosphorous detector (ECD/NPD) potentially offers the prospect of providing selective chemical compositional information of incense powder and smoke, such as nitrogen-containing (N-containing) and halogenated compounds. Results of GC×GC-ECD/NPD showed that both incense powder and smoke generated emission of N-containing and halogenated compounds. A significant number of halogenated and N-containing compounds were emitted during the incomplete combustion of incense. However, one further objective of this paper is to demonstrate the capacity of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to specific and/or selective detectors such as those used in this study (GC × GC-ECD/NPD) for the detection of particular classes of compounds such as N-containing and halogenated compounds at trace level concentrations in complex smoke samples.

Incense smoke is a potential hazard to human health due to various airborne carcinogens emitted from incense burning. This study aimed to evaluate the potential health effects of exposure to benzene, 1,3-butadiene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emitted from incense smoke in temple workers. Exposure and health risks were assessed through the measurement of ambient exposure as well as through the use of biomarkers of exposure and early biological effects. Ambient air measurement showed that incense burning generates significantly higher levels of airborne benzene (P

Frankincense, an aromatic exudate obtained from several Boswellia species, is an important commodity with the potential to invigorate economic development of the drylands of Ethiopia. Local people have been producing and trading frankincense for centuries to diversify their income sources. However, local people's involvement in the production of frankincense varies considerably among the producing dryland regions of the country. The objectives of this study were to investigate: (i) the potential of frankincense production, (ii) socio-cultural, economic and policy factors affecting the involvement of local people in the production of frankincense, and (iii) the current status of Boswellia woodlands in Metema district, which is one of the major frankincense producing areas in Ethiopia. The results showed that Boswellia papyrifera comprised 51% of the species composition of the vegetation of the district with 253.5 kg/ha/year production potential. The total annual frankincense production potential of the district was estimated to be 79,168 tons. However, almost all inhabitants do not benefit economically from the species due to: (i) cultural influence (67%), (ii) unattractiveness of income from frankincense compared to other economic activities in the area (38%), property tenure (27%), government policy on incense production (20%), poor knowledge on frankincense production (19%) and unawareness of the potential of frankincense as a source of income (5%). The absence of direct economic benefits for the local people from the woodlands is triggering their widespread degradation mostly from human induced fire, improper forest use and agricultural land expansion.

Whenever we make reasoned decisions we must refer to relevant knowledge obtained through past experience. Our brains test multiple premises and select whichever conclusion serves as the best explanation of the current conditions. In the present study we examined the prefrontal activity of koh-do experts with near infrared spectroscopy while they reasoned about odours during an incense discrimination task. These practitioners of the Japanese incense ceremony have been trained to form and manipulate abstract images of complex olfactory stimuli represented in a multidimensional symbolic space in the mind. In koh-do experts, the right PFC showed a consistent stimulus-non-selective response during discrimination and the left PFC showed phasic stimulus-selective responses modulated by the internal subjective state of the reasoning process. These two dissociated functions appeared to cooperate with each other during reasoning. In contrast, koh-do beginners did not show the organized response pattern found in experts. The results suggest that both PFCs contribute to abductive reasoning, but do so differently through different stages of the process.

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography in tandem with flame ionization detection (GC×GC-FID) was used for the qualitative fingerprint characterisation of four different types of powdered incense headspace (H/S), and incense smoke. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the incense powder and smoke were extracted by using solid phase microextraction (SPME) with a polydimethylsiloxane/divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) 65 μm fiber. Low-polarity/polar, and polar/non-polar phase combinations were tested to contrast the GC×GC separation of components in these two column sets. A total of 324 compounds were tentatively identified, with more than 100 compounds in incense powders and more than 200 compounds in the incense smoke, by using GC coupled to quadrupole mass spectrometric detection. Identification required at least 90% match with the NIST library; otherwise they were considered as unidentified. The smoke stream comprised compounds originating from the incense powder, and combustion products such as PAH, N-heterocyclics, and furans. However, GC×GC was able to separate many more volatile compounds (possibly hundreds more) present in the complex smoke samples, many of which cannot be separated by conventional 1D-GC; this is a direct consequence of the high-resolution power of GC×GC. GC×GC fingerprint comparison of powder H/S with smoke allows facile subtraction of the former from the latter to assist identification of compounds generated from burning incense.

Stimulated by the “Amber ISBC” in Gdansk/Poland, 15 amber samples (Baltic area, Germany, Africa, Meso- and South America) and 3 copal samples (Africa, Meso- and South America) were investigated by thermal analysis (DTA, TG, DTG, combined with mass spectrometry) as well as pyrolysis-gas chromatography. IR false colour thermography was added to study the burning behaviour of the samples. Characteristic compounds like abietic acid, succinic acid, several terpenes or sesquiterpenes and related compounds were detected for amber and copal and compared in the sense of fingerprinting. One sample of incense was included in the investigations because amber was used as a kind of incense along the Baltic Coast through many centuries.

The formation of incense smoke generated from four different types of incense sticks, three manufactured in Taiwan and one in Japan, was investigated in a small controlled chamber. The scanning mobility particle sizer and the quartz crystal microbalance were used for particle size analyses. The count median diameter (CMD) was found to rise swiftly along the path of the incense smoke. Consequently, a representative sampling location was selected for all measurements performed thereafter. All four types of incense smoke were shown to exhibit characteristic size distributions, CMDs, and mass median aerodynamic diameters (MMADs). Electron microscopy depicted liquid and solid nature of Taiwan and Japan incense smoke, respectively. The different physical states of the particles were suspected to be a result of different smoke-generating ingredients used by different cultures. Finally, the formation mechanisms of both liquid and solid incense smoke were discussed.

The particle size distribution and the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in incense smoke were studied using a custom-designed combustion chamber. Among the nine types of incense investigated, the particle and the total PAH emission factors varied significantly. The average mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of the smoke aerosol was 262+/-49nm, which positively correlated to particle emission factor (mg/stick, p0.05). Coagulation was a major mechanism that dictates the MMAD of the smoke. The total toxic equivalency (the sum of the benzo[a]pyrene equivalent concentration) of the solid-phase PAHs (S-PAHs) was over 40 times higher than that of the corresponding gas-phase PAHs, indicating that the S-PAHs in incense smoke may pose potential health risk. Experiments show that each lowered percentage of total carbon content in the raw incense helped decrease the particle emission factor by 2.6mg/g-incense, and the reduction of S-PAH emission factor ranged from 8.7 to 26% when the carbon content was lowered from 45 to 40%.

This study is aimed to characterize the major chemical compositions of PM 2.5 from incense burning in a large environmental chamber. Chemical analyses, including X-ray fluorescence for elemental species, ion chromatography for water soluble inorganic species (chloride, nitrate, sulfate, sodium, potassium, ammonium) and thermal/optical reflectance analysis for carbon species were carried out for combustion of three incense categories (traditional, aromatic and church incense). The average concentrations from incense burning ranged from 139.8 to 4414.7 μg m −3 for organic carbon (OC), and from 22.8 to 74.0 μg m −3 for elemental carbon (EC), respectively. The average OC and EC concentrations in PM 2.5 of three incense categories were in the order of church incense>traditional incense>aromatic incense. OC/EC ratios ranged from 7.0 to 39.1 for the traditional incense, with an average of 21.7; from 3.2 to 11.9 for the aromatic incense, with an average of 7.7. The concentrations of Cl − , SO 4 2− , Na + and K + were highly variable. On average, the inorganic ion concentration sequence was traditional incense>church incense>aromatic incense. The profiles for elements were dominated by Na, Cl and K. In general, the major components in PM 2.5 fraction from incense burning are OC (especially OC2, OC3 and OC4), EC and K.

Nothing retains the shape of what it was, and Nature, always making old things new…Reborn in ageless likeness through the years. It is the bird Assyrians call the Phoenix …Of bark and spices, myrrh and cinnamon, and dies incense lifts his soul away. Then from his breast—or so the legend runs