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There is a general consensus that private car ownership is a significant barrier to transport system change, specifically in regard to injuries, space, air pollutants, or greenhouse gas emissions. Observed changes in automobile characteristics also suggest that the system is becoming less sustainable, given trends towards larger cars with greater mass and horsepower. It is thus relevant to understand how the automobile system progresses. National statistics provide data on the technical side of car ownership, such as changes in vehicle specifics or national fleet size. This paper complements this view with a socio-psychological perspective on aspirational car owner-ship, i.e. the type of car people preferred to drive if given a free choice. Data is derived from an online panel (n = 1,211) representative of the German population, and also contains information on current car ownership, use, driving style, traffic behavior, attitudes towards traffic risks and safety measures, as well as political orientation. This allows for a discussion of driver segments in relation to the characteristics of cars, and hence to better understand the socio-psychological drivers of the development of the automobile system.

Parking fees and fines represent contested issues in cities, as they conflict with vehicle owners' opinion over 'rights' to public space. As cities have moved to regulate vehicle density by introducing parking fees, a share of drivers may feel compelled to 'cheat', weighing the price of parking fees against the cost of fines, or to simply park illegally outside designated areas. To better understand these interrelationships, this paper considers negotiations of public space as an economic gamble that can be assessed on the basis of parking violations. The study is situated in Freiburg, Germany, and relies on a mixed-methods approach that investigates the views of the regulatory agency and its enforcement officers, as well as registered parking violations (n = 181,735, in 2019). Time-spatial probabilities of being fined when parking illegally are calculated as risks, defined as detection probability per "hexagon-hour", an indicator integrating space and time. Results confirm that in the inner city, it is economically rational not to pay parking fees during 86.1% of hexagon-hours, and in surrounding areas during 99.9% of the time. Findings confirm that urban space can be negotiated in an equilibrium of fees, fines and controls. To make vehicle ownership and use less attractive, the price of parking needs to be high. Fines need to be high in relation to fees, and control densities need to constitute significant detection risks.

Prior to the COVID-19 crisis, global air transport demand was expected to triple between 2020 and 2050. The pandemic, which reduced global air travel significantly, provides an opportunity to discuss the scale, distribution and growth of aviation until 2018, also with a view to consider the climate change implications of a return to volume growth. Industry statistics, data provided by supranational organizations, and national surveys are evaluated to develop a pre-pandemic understanding of air transport demand at global, regional, national and individual scales. Results suggest that the share of the world’s population travelling by air in 2018 was 11%, with at most 4% taking international flights. Data also supports that a minor share of air travelers is responsible for a large share of warming: The percentile of the most frequent fliers – at most 1% of the world population - likely accounts for more than half of the total emissions from passenger air travel. Individual users of private aircraft can contribute to emissions of up to 7,500 t CO2 per year. Findings are specifically relevant with regard to the insight that a large share of global aviation emissions is not covered by policy agreements.

'Flight shame' describes an unease about the climate implications of air travel, and bears evidence of a change in social norms that have so far associated flying with social status. This paper dis ...

Background & Aim In cancer immunotherapy autologous MNC apheresis provides the source material for various advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs). Predicting cell yields would facilitate complex therapeutic regimens. Therefore an algorithm for CD34+ HPC yield in stem cell collection was applied but failed because of considerable cell recruitment during leukapheresis. Methods, Results & Conclusion Methods 41 patients were subjected to 46 autologous MNC leukapheresis procedures with a continous flow cell separator (Spectra Optia, V11.0, CMNC programme, TerumoBCT). Blood counts and quantification of lymphocyte subpopulations were done before and after leukapheresis as well as in the apheresis product on a hematology analyzer (Sysmex K21) and a flow cytometer (FACS Verse, BD). From the results and the apheresis key data cell yields, collection efficiency (CE2) and recruitment were calculated. Furthermore, relevant data were entered into a kinetic model validated for prediction of CD34+ HPC yields in HPC apheresis. Results The yields in 46 procedures averaged to vital TNC s 1.3*10E10, lymphocytes 6.8*10E9, CD3+ T cells 3.8 *10E9, NK cells (NKs) 7.2*10E8, platelets (PLT) 16.7*10E10, respectively. Though in 29/46 separations peripheral blood CD34+ HPCs were below 1/µl, they were detectable in the corresponding apheresis products containing on average 3.8*10E7 CD34+ HPCs. The collection efficiency (CE2) amounted to 0.64 for lymphocytes, 0.61 for CD3+ T cells, 0.74 for NKs. CE2 for CD3+ and NK cells were independent from their blood count. In the model validated for the prediction of CD34+ HPC yields described by Humpe et al. the calculated amounts overestimated PLT yields (3.0fold), but underscored the harvests of NK, CD3+ T cells and lymphocytes 0.5fold each. This is probably related to the recruitment which averaged 2.7 for lymphocytes, NK and CD3+T cells each and 1.1 for PLT. As described earlier in healthy donors, cell recruitment and loss were significantly correlated. Conclusion Yields in MNC leukapheresis cannot be predicted using a kinetic model validated for the prediction of CD34+ HPC collection. This is caused by a considerable, but highly variable recruitment of cells into the apheresis product representing a novel kind of liquid biopsy.

Background & Aim Autologous MNC apheresis is applied for the preparation of various advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) for immunotherapy of cancer. The recruitment of cells during leukapheresis results in unexpectedly high yields in some patients. It is further characterized by an algorithm for calculation of CD34+ HPC yield in stem cell collection (see: Humpe et al, Transfusion 2000; 40: 1363-70). Methods, Results & Conclusion Methods 9 patients were subjected to autologous MNC leukapheresis procedures on a cell separator (Spectra Optia, V11.0, CMNC programme, TerumoBCT). Blood counts and quantification of lymphocyte subpopulations were done before and after leukapheresis as well as in the apheresis product on a hematology analyzer (Sysmex K21) and a flow cytometer (FACS Verse, BD). From the results and the apheresis key data cell yields, collection efficiency (CE2) and recruitment as well as the predicted yields by the above mentioned algorithm were calculated. Results The yields in 9 procedures averaged to vital TNC s 1.4*10E10, monocytes (MC) 3.8 *10E9, lymphocytes (LY) 6.7*10E9, CD3+ T cells (TC) 5.5 *10E9, NK cells (NKs) 11.5*10E8, platelets (PLT) 23.3 *10E10, respectively. Though CD34+ HPCs in the blood of 6/9 patients were below 1/µl, they were detected in all apheresis products (average 4.4*10E7 CD34+ HPCs). CE2 was independent of counts in peripheral blood and amounted to 0.61 for MC, 0.65 for LY and TC, respectively, 0.60 for NKs and 0.11 for PLT. In the model for the prediction of CD34+ HPC yields decribed by Humpe et al, the calculated amounts overestimated PLT yields (4.5fold), but underscored the harvests of NK, TC and MC 0.5fold, 0.4fold and 0.6fold, respectively. Predicted and measured cell contents were highly correlated as for NK and PLT (R2 >0.8), moderately for MC and TC (R2∼0.6). Only with TC, a significant, but negative correlation was found between the percentage of cells recruited into the product and the ratio of predicted to recorded yield. Despite a high interindividual variance, the portion of cells recruited into the product were similar for MC, LY, TC and NK (0.41, 0.46, 0.48, 0.37), except for PLT (-2.10). Conclusion Yields in MNC leukapheresis cannot be predicted using the same algorithm as in CD34+ HPC collection. We speculate that this is due to a considerable recruitment of cells into the apheresis product, resulting in unexpectedly high yields despite low blood counts. Hence, an apheresis collection may serve as liquid biopsy.

A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of the FCGR3A gene results in two allotypes of Fcgamma receptor IIIA (FcgammaRIIIA) with valine (V) or phenylalanine (F) at amino acid 158. Since the FcgammaRIIIA-158 V/F polymorphism is associated with the efficacy of monoclonal antibody (mAb) treatment and a risk factor for autoimmune disease, widely applicable methods to assess the SNP are needed. We developed a novel flow cytometric test for this polymorphism using a mAb that recognized only the FcgammaRIIIA-158 V allele (MEM-154) together with a mAb that detected both FcgammaRIIIA-158 alleles (3G8). The expression of both FcgammaRIIIA epitopes on natural killer (NK) cells from 37 healthy donors were measured and compared to the FCGR3A genotype determined by a 5' nuclease assay. FcgammaRIIIA expression levels in individuals with identical FCGR3A genotypes varied considerably, resulting in overlapping immunofluorescences by both 3G8 and MEM-154 between FcgammaRIIIA-158 V/F allotypes. However, the ratio between fluorescences measured using those mAbs in a single individual predicted the FCGR3A genotype with 100% sensitivity and specificity. The novel flow cytometric assay for the FcgammaRIIIA-158 V/F polymorphism that is based on the MEM-154/3G8 fluorescence ratio requires commercially available reagents and a three-color flow cytometer only.

In order to examine non-linear predictability of the US and Japanese dividend-yield ratio, smooth transition regression model analysis is applied to an extended time period of data. The theoretical basis for investigating non-linear behaviour in stock returns can be based on the interaction between noise traders and arbitrageurs or behavioural finance theories of non-linear risk aversion. Our findings support non-linearity in the US and Japanese dividend yield that might be linked to differences in the market structure of the Japanese stock market compared to the US. Specifically, there is evidence of an inner momentum and an outer mean reversion regime in both countries. However, the momentum regime appears to be larger in the US compared to Japan.

This paper examines how Article 82 of the EC Treaty (prohibiting the abuse of a dominant position) should be applied to refusal to supply cases. As a starting point, and for the sake of clarification, this paper explains (a) why the antitrust analysis of refusals to supply customers differs from the analysis of refusals to supply competitors (Part II), and (b) why a distinction must also be made between unilateral and concerted refusals to supply (Part III). The paper then deals with unilateral refusals to supply competitors. In this connection, there are two preliminary issues, namely (a) whether a distinction should be made between a first-time refusal to supply and the termination of an existing supply relationship; and (b) whether a distinction should be made between refusal to deal involving tangible property rights and refusal to licence IPRs. These issues are addressed in Part IV and Part V respectively. Part VI considers the respective merits of the various possible ways to apprehend unilateral refusals to supply under Article 82 (per se legality v. rule of reason approach v. the screens approach v. the exhaustive checklist approach). In Part VII an attempt is made to formulate a multi-pronged legal test. Part VIII briefly deals with the relationship between refusal to supply abuses and other types of potentially abusive conduct under Article 82. Finally, Part IX concludes by making a number of recommendations.