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Recent research is indicating predictive validity for emotional intelligence (EI) in a range of important scholastic variables including bullying, well-being and mental health. There have been some suggestions that emotional intelligence and resiliency in school children are also related, however, there is little research on these variables. Therefore, the present study attempted to bridge this gap by examining the relationship between EI, resiliency and scholastic performance. Specifically, the study examined whether resiliency mediated the relationship between EI and scholastic performance. One hundred and fifty-three year-10 males completed the Adolescent Swinburne Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT-A) and the Resiliency Scale for Children and Adolescents (RSCA). In addition, current academic achievement was collected for all school subjects. Regression Analyses revealed that several dimensions of the SUEIT-A and the RSCA predicted individual subject grades. Reactivity, a subscale of Resiliency, mediated the relationship between the EI subscales, Understand Emotions of Others and Emotions Direct Cognition, and two measures of scholastic performance (i.e., GPA and Science grades). Given these results, future research should examine whether improving emotional intelligence and resiliency leads to improvements in scholastic performance.

In older people sleep difficulties are associated with a range of poorer physiological (e.g. increased oxidative stress) and psychological outcomes. However, the impact of many psychological factors on sleep difficulties is poorly described. This study investigated the extent to which state and trait anxiety predicted self-reported sleep difficulties in healthy older adults. We present an analysis of the baseline data (n = 292) collected as part of the Australian Research Council Longevity Intervention (ARCLI) study. Participants were aged between 60 and 75 years (M = 65.88, SD = 4.01). Sleep difficulties were assessed using a modified version of the Leeds Sleep Evaluation Questionnaire and state/trait anxiety was assessed using the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Regression was used to examine the association between state anxiety and trait anxiety and each of the four sleep outcome variables. State and trait anxiety was positively associated with self-reported sleep difficulties and depression (p

Adults who remain cognitively active may be protected from age-associated changes in white matter (WM) and cognitive decline. To determine if cognitive activity is a precursor for WM plasticity, the available literature was systematically searched for Region of Interest (ROI) and whole-brain studies assessing the efficacy of cognitive training (CT) on WM microstructure using Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) in healthy adults (> 40 years). Seven studies were identified and included in this review. Results suggest there are beneficial effects to WM microstructure after CT in frontal and medial brain regions, with some studies showing improved performance in cognitive outcomes. Benefits of CT were shown to be protective against age-related WM microstructure decline by either maintaining or improving WM after training. These results have implications for determining the capacity for training-dependent WM plasticity in older adults and whether CT can be utilised to prevent age-associated cognitive decline. Additional studies with standardised training and imaging protocols are needed to confirm these outcomes.

Identifying the factors that drive environmentalism is critical to reduce human impact on the environment. Emotional intelligence (EI) has been shown to influence pro-environmental behaviour and environmental attitudes in adults, while such influences in adolescents are yet to be examined. The current study investigated the relationship between self-reported EI, pro-environmental attitude (PEA) and pro-environmental behaviour (PEB) in 382 Australian adolescents (12–17 years). Higher PEB was associated with higher PEA, and EI dimensions of Emotional Management and Control (EMC), and Understanding Others Emotions (UEO). Hierarchical multiple regression confirmed that PEA predicted PEB, while EMC also predicted PEB. EMC and UEO interactively moderated the relationship between PEA and PEB. This study suggests that adolescents' ability to manage, control and understand emotions affects the extent to which their PEAs predict PEBs, which has significant implications for the development of future environmental education initiatives to encourage pro-environmentalism.

There has been increasing interest in nutraceutical augmentation strategies to boost the efficacy of antidepressants. This study assessed whether S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), a methyl donor that occurs naturally in the body, may be of such benefit. We conducted an 8-week, double-blind RCT in which 107 treatment non-remittent outpatients with DSM-5 diagnosed Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) were randomized to either SAMe or placebo adjunctively to antidepressants. One-carbon cycle nutrients, pertinent single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and BDNF were also analysed as potential moderators of response. A linear mixed-effects model revealed a significant overall reduction in Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) score across time, however there was no significant between-group difference observed (p = 0.51). Response rates at Week 8 were 54.3% in the SAMe group and 50.0% in the placebo group, with remission rates 43.5% for SAMe and 38.3% for placebo (all results NS). No effect of SAMe was found on any secondary outcome. Differential response to SAMe was not modified by a range of key genotypes (e.g. COMT), nor reflected in a change of homocysteine, red cell folate, or BDNF. Use of SAMe elicited no significant adverse effects beyond placebo, however it was implicated in one case of serotonin syndrome-like symptoms. This study concludes that 800 mg/day of SAMe is not an effective adjunctive treatment in MDD, and no obvious biomarker reflected any differential response to treatment. Due to such a distinctly high placebo-response (despite rigorous screening), future studies should employ a placebo run-in period and other strategies to minimize placebo response.

Hemp-derivative (Cannabis sativa L.) food products containing trace levels of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are proposed for consumption in Australia and New Zealand; however, it is unclear whether use of these products will negatively affect existing drug screening protocols. This double-blind, within-subjects, cross-over trial assessed 35 adults (17 male; 18 female), aged 22-52 years [Mean=30.7, Standard Deviation (S.D)±7.6]. Low dose THC oil [5mL bearer sesame oil containing 10mg/kg THC (0.046mg THC per 5mL dose)]; high dose THC oil [5mL bearer sesame oil containing 20mg/kg THC (0.092mg THC per 5mL dose)]; and a placebo oil (THC negative) was consumed during a three-week protocol. The Securetec Drugwipe® II Twin device assessed THC presence (cut-off 20ng/mL) in oral fluid at baseline, at 5, 30, 60, 120 and 240min post-treatment. Blood was drawn at baseline, 30, 120 and 240min post-treatment, and urine at baseline and 240min post-treatment. No THC was detected in oral fluid, blood or urine samples at any time-point following consumption of the low or high THC dose. Trace concentrations of 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (THCa) were detected in blood 4-h after consumption of the high THC treatment (M=0.0001mg/L) and in urine at 4-h post consumption of both low and high THC treatments (M=0.0001mg/L and 0.0004mg/L, respectively). Consumption of low-content THC oil does not result in positive biological assessments. It is therefore highly unlikely that ingestion of products containing these levels of THC will negatively impact existing region-specific drug driving enforcement protocols.

Age-associated cognitive decline amongst otherwise healthy older individuals is a multifaceted characteristic of ageing. The role of oxidative stress biomarkers has been increasingly examined in the context of pathological aging conditions that affect cognition. Plasma F2-Isoprostane levels are a reliable index of systemic oxidative stress (specifically lipid peroxidation) and are elevated in dementia patients. Less is known about their role in healthy cognitive ageing. This study evaluated the relationship between F2-Isoprostanes and cognitive functioning in a cohort of 211 healthy elderly adults (60–75 years: Male; 88, Female; 123). Cognitive assessment included the Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) computerised assessment battery, which produces five validated factor scores (corresponding to ‘Quality of Episodic Memory’, ‘Speed of Memory’, Quality of Working Memory’, Power of Attention’ and ‘Continuity of Attention’). Participants with higher F2-Isoprostane levels had significantly lower Quality of Episodic Memory scores (suggesting inferior abilities in retaining and retrieving verbal information in episodic memory). This is, to our knowledge, the first report of compromised verbal episodic memory in healthy ageing humans being linked to increased levels of F2-Isoprostanes. These results have relevance for interventions aimed at improving cognitive performance in the healthy elderly.

Background Risky driving is considered a key predictive factor in road traffic accidents resulting in morbidity and mortality. Intra-individual emotional and personality factors have been shown to influence risk-taking behaviours among drivers. Despite this, there is limited research investigating the individual dimensions of these constructs and their relationship to risky driving behaviour (RDB). The current study therefore aimed to assess whether the individual dimensions of Emotional Intelligence (EI) were implicated in RDB. Methods The sample comprised 179 adults (55% male) aged between 18 and 64 years (M = 29.85, SD = 11.46) and who currently held a valid driver’s licence completed an online survey. Emotional Intelligence was assessed via self-report using the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), and RDB was measured using both the Brief Distracted Driving Scale (BDDS) and the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI). Results Regression analyses revealed that ‘Risky Driving’ was related to greater levels of Emotional Recognition and Expression and lesser Age [F(6, 172) = 2.27, p Conclusions Lower scores on specific indices of EI are associated with increased rates of RDB, suggesting that poor emotional control may impede an individuals’ ability to make safe behavioural decisions when driving. The effect sizes for these models were small, however, and further research is needed to explore the contributory components in this association. Greater awareness of the role of emotional regulation and driving behaviours may be useful in preventing RDB in adults.

Cannabis use disorder (CUD) is frequently associated with concurrent substance use and/or comorbid substance use disorders (SUDs); however there is little specificity with regard to commonly abused individual drug types/classes. This study therefore aimed to provide insight into the degree of these co-occurring relationships across several specific newer and older generation illicit and prescription drugs. 36,309 adults aged 18+ from wave 3 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC-III) were assessed. Weighted cross-tabulations and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate comorbidity between current DSM-5 CUD, substance use and DSM-5 SUD. Current DSM-5 CUD is associated with greater lifetime use of all examined drug classes, and previous 12-month use of several newer-class illicit and prescription stimulant-based substances (all p0.05). Current DSM-5 CUD was similarly associated with increased incidence of a range of DSM-5 SUDs and was independently associated with concurrently reporting current DSM-5; sedative (Adjusted OR= 5.1, 95%CI 2.9-9.0), cocaine (AOR= 9.3, 95%CI 5.6-15.5), stimulant (AOR= 4.3, 95%CI 2.3-7.9), club drug (AOR= 16.1, 95%CI 6.3-40.8), opioid (AOR= 4.6, 95%CI 3.0-6.8) and alcohol-use disorder (AOR= 3.0, 95%CI 2.5-3.7); but not heroin or 'other' drug use disorder (both p0.05). High comorbidity exists between DSM-5 CUD and many specific DSM-5 SUDs. Newer-class illicit and prescription stimulant-based drug use disorders are overrepresented among those with DSM-5 CUD. These findings underscore the need for tailored treatment programs for those presenting with DSM-5 CUD, and for greater treatment specification where poly-drug use is evident.

Objectives Clinicians utilise critical research to advance their knowledge when prescribing standard and alternative therapies for developmental disorders. Recent research has reported that the traditional Ayurvedic medicine Bacopa monnieri may improve cognitive outcomes in adult populations; however, few studies have investigated its benefits in younger cohorts. The aim of the current review is to systematically assess and critically summarize clinical trial outcomes and safety of Bacopa and its effects on the cognition and behaviour in children and adolescents. Method PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Google and CINAHL were searched up to August 2015 for trials investigating Bacopa monnieri in child and adolescent populations. There were no restrictions in study design. Cognitive and behavioural outcomes were grouped into validated constructs and effect sizes were calculated for all significant data to allow for direct comparisons. Results Five studies met inclusion criteria for this review. The results demonstrated significant consistent improvements in the language behaviour cognitive domain and in a number of the memory sub-domains. Significant improvements were also seen in hyperactivity and attention-deficit domains. Overall outcome data demonstrated small to medium effect sizes (mean d = 0.42). Safety and tolerability data was well reported for 80% of studies with only 2.3% of all participants reporting mild side-effects. Conclusion This review highlights the safe use of Bacopa monnieri in child and adolescent populations for improving elements of cognition as well as behaviour and attention-deficit domains. However, there is a significant need for replicated study designs and stringent statistical analysis to validate these outcomes.

As the elderly population grows the impact of age associated cognitive decline as well as neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and dementia will increase. Ageing is associated with consistent impairments in cognitive processes (e.g., processing speed, memory, executive function and learning) important for work, well-being, life satisfaction and overall participation in society. Recently, there has been increased effort to conduct research examining methods to improve cognitive function in older citizens. Cognitive training has been shown to improve performance in some cognitive domains; including memory, processing speed, executive function and attention in older adults. These cognitive changes are thought to be related to improvements in brain connectivity and neural circuitry. Bacopa monnieri has also been shown to improve specific domains of cognition, sensitive to age associated cognitive decline (particularly processing speed and memory). These Bacopa monnieri dependent improvements may be due to the increase in specific neuro-molecular mechanisms implicated in the enhancement of neural connections in the brain (i.e. synaptogenesis). In particular, a number of animal studies have shown Bacopa monnieri consumption upregulates calcium dependent kinases in the synapse and post-synaptic cell, crucial for strengthening and growing connections between neurons. These effects have been shown to occur in areas important for cognitive processes, such as the hippocampus. As Bacopa monnieri has shown neuro-molecular mechanisms that encourage synaptogenesis, while cognitive training enhances brain connectivity, Bacopa monnieri supplementation could theoretically enhance and strengthen synaptic changes acquired through cognitive training. Therefore, the current paper hypothesises that the combination of these two interventions could improve cognitive outcomes, over and above the effects of administrating these interventions independently, as an effective treatment to ameliorate age associated cognitive decline.

Background The mechanisms for cognitive impairment in heart failure (HF) are unclear. We investigated the relative contributions of cerebral blood flow velocity (BFV), oxidative stress, and inflammation to HF-associated cognitive impairment. Methods and Results Thirty-six HF patients (≥60 years) and 40 healthy controls (68 ± 7 vs 67 ± 5 years, P > .05; 69% vs 50% male, P > .05) completed the Cognitive Drug Research computerized assessment battery and Stroop tasks. Common carotid (CCA) and middle cerebral arterial BFV were obtained by transcranial Doppler. Blood samples were collected for oxidant (diacron-reactive oxygen metabolites; F 2 -isoprostanes), antioxidant (coenzyme Q 10 ; CoQ 10 ), and inflammatory markers (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein). Compared with controls, patients exhibited impaired attention (Cognitive Drug Research's Power of Attention domain, congruent Stroop) and executive function (incongruent Stroop). Multiple regression modeling showed that CCA-BFV and CoQ 10 but not group predicted performance on attention and executive function. Additionally, in HF patients, CCA-BFV and CoQ 10 ( β = −0.34 vs β = −0.35) were significant predictors of attention, and CCA-BFV ( β = −0.34) was a predictor of executive function. Conclusions Power of Attention and executive function is impaired in older HF patients, and reduced CCA-BFV and CoQ 10 are associated with worse cognition. Interventions addressing these mechanisms may improve cognition in older HF patients.

The Standardized Field Sobriety Tests (SFST) are utilised widely to assess fitness to drive when law enforcement suspects a driver's ability to drive is impaired, whether by drugs or alcohol. The SFST ostensibly achieve this through assessment of the level of drivers' cognitive and psychomotor impairment, although no studies have explicitly assessed the relatedness of cognitive ability and performance on the SFST. The current study aimed to assess the relationship between the three components of the SFST with a well validated computerised cognitive battery.A sub-set of 61 placebo condition participants comprised the sample, with 33 females and 28 males (mean age 25.45 years). Correlations between the individual SFST subscales 'Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus' (HGN), the 'One Leg Stand' (OLS) and the 'Walk and Turn' test (WAT) and Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) sub-scales of 'Quality of Working Memory', 'Power of Attention' and 'Continuity of Attention' were analysed using point-biserial correlation.Sixty participants were included for analyses. A weak-moderate positive (five subscales) and a moderate-strong negative (two subscales) association was noted between seven of the nine individual CDR subscales and the SFST subscale of the WAT test (all p0.05). Individually, a moderate positive association was noted between the sub-scale 'Nystagmus lack of smooth pursuit' and 'digit vigilance reaction time' and 'choice reaction time; reaction time' (both p0.05) and 'Nystagmus head move and/or jerk' and 'simple reaction time' (p0.001). When assessed as a partially composite factor, a comparable association was also noted between the composite score of the SFST subscale 'Nystagmus head move and/or jerk' and both (a) simple and (b) digit vigilance reaction time (both p0.05). No association was noted between any of the individual cognitive variables and the SFST subscale 'OLS', or between composite cognitive scores 'Quality of Working Memory', 'Power of Attention' and 'Continuity of Attention' and total SFST scores.Variation in some aspects of cognitive performance was found to be moderately and positively correlated with some individual aspects of the SFST; particularly among tasks which assess reaction time. Impairment of these cognitive processes can also contribute to the completion of complex tasks such as driving or the SFST. Complex behavioural tasks such as driving are often severely impaired due to intoxication, and thus in a practical sense, the SFST can still be considered a useful screening tool to identify drug or alcohol impaired drivers.

Objective Examine subjective sleep quality and inflammation among healthy older adults participating in the Australian Research Council Longevity Intervention (ARCLI). Methods Data was taken from a sub-set of 232 participants aged between 60–70 years (M = 65.88 ± SD 4.08 years) who participated in the baseline assessment phase of the Australian Research Council Longevity Intervention (ARCLI) study. Subjective sleep was assessed via the Leeds Sleep Evaluation Questionnaire (LSEQ). Inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, hs-CRP) were derived from whole blood. Correlation and multiple regression analyses were used to examine associations between each of the four sleep outcome variables and inflammatory outcomes, examined as a group and following gender stratification. Results Difficulties getting to sleep were independently associated with higher IL-2 [F(1,156) = 4.62, adjusted R 2 = 0.02, p = 0.03] and IL-1β [F(1,141) = 8.52, adjusted R 2 = 0.05, p = 0.004] (whole group). Difficulties getting to sleep were associated with greater IL-1β [males: F(1,58) = 7.36, adjusted R 2 = 0.097 p = 0.009; females: F (1,81) = 4.25, R 2 = 0.038, p = 0.04], and negatively associated with hs-CRP (women) [F (1,129) = 4.71, R 2 = 0.028, p = 0.032]. Discussion Subjective sleep-onset difficulties are associated with systemic inflammation.

Neurotrophins are signalling molecules involved in the formation and maintenance of synapses in the brain. They can cross the blood–brain barrier and be detected in peripheral blood, suggesting they may be a potential biomarker for brain health and function. In this review, the available literature was systematically searched for studies comparing peripheral neurotrophins levels with MRI and cognitive measures in healthy adults. Twenty-four studies were identified, six of which included a neuroimaging outcome. Fifteen studies measuring cognition were eligible for meta-analysis. The majority of studies measured levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), with few assessing other neurotrophins. Results revealed BDNF is related to some neuroimaging outcomes, with some studies suggesting older age may be an important factor. A higher proportion of studies who had older samples observed significant effects between cognition and neurotrophin levels. When cognitive studies were pooled together in a meta-analysis, there was a weak non-significant effect between BDNF and cognitive outcomes. There was also a high level of heterogeneity between cognitive studies. Results indicated that gender was a notable source of the heterogeneity, but additional studies employing relevant covariates are necessary to better characterise the inter-relationship between circulating neurotrophins and cognition.

Evidence suggests that enhanced oxidative stress and mild, chronic inflammation is associated with the onset and progression of some neurological disorders. Hypothesis: A polyphenol rich sugarcane extract may be active in protecting against this inflammation and neurological degeneration. Study design: A series of cell culture strains and in vitro gene expression studies were used to understand the neuroprotective activity. Methods: Extract was prepared according to a patented extraction process and dose responses for TNF-α inhibition, Nrf-2 activation, MAO inhibition, DNA damage marker and AChE inhibition were prepared. This was in addition to a gene array assay for 84 genes related to neurogenesis. Results: PRSE displayed anti-inflammatory effect, possibly through inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines and activating Nrf2-ARE transcription pathway, and may exert neurological benefits through suppressing neuro-inflammation. In particular, subsequent studies with neuronal cells indicate that PRSE may exert additional neurological benefits through promoting genes that encode neurogenesis-related growth factors and regulate neuronal differentiation, preserving neuronal DNA from oxidative stress damage, and inhibiting key neuronal therapeutic targets such as MAO and AChE as a pathway to attenuate oxidative stress Conclusion: We report promising preclinical studies for the therapeutic intervention of a new polyphenol rich sugarcane extract on inflammation and neurological disorder modulation.

Individuals with autism and those with high subclinical autistic traits often report poor trait emotional intelligence (EI) and psychosocial outcomes. EI predicts resiliency in adolescents, however, the interrelationship between autistic traits, EI and resiliency is unknown. The Adolescent Swinburne University EI Test, Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents were completed by 212 adolescents (193 males; 14–17 years). In line with previous studies, adolescents with better EI reported more resiliency, and fewer autistic traits, while fewer autistic traits were associated with better resiliency. Mediation analyses revealed that the relationships between EI dimensions and resiliency were partially or fully mediated by AQ Social Skills and AQ Communication, suggesting that trait EI is an important predictor of resiliency, but that these autistic trait dimensions drive this relationship. The findings have significant implications for developing EI programs that foster resiliency in adolescents across the clinical and subclinical autism spectrum.

Current treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD), a prevalent and disabling mental illness, is inadequate, with two-thirds of people treated with first-line antidepressants not achieving remission. MDD is for many a chronic condition, often requiring multiple treatment attempts, thus development of additional interventions is urgently required. An emerging approach to improve non-response to antidepressants is the use of adjunctive nutraceuticals. The pathophysiology of MDD is considered to involve a range of abnormalities (monoamine impairment, neuro-endocrinological changes, reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and cytokine alterations). By targeting an array of these key neurobiological pathways via specific nutraceuticals (S-adenosyl methionine; [SAMe], 5-HTP [active tryptophan], folinic acid [active folic acid], omega-3 fatty acids, and zinc), there is the potential to provide a more comprehensive therapeutic biological approach to treat depression. We are currently conducting a National Health and Medical Research Council funded study in Australia (APP1048222). The clinical trial is phase II/III, multi-site, 3-arm, 8-week, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study using SAMe + folinic acid versus a combination nutraceutical (SAMe, 5-HTP, folinic acid, omega-3, and zinc) or matching placebo in 300 currently depressed participants with diagnosed MDD who are non-responsive to current antidepressants (ANZCTR, protocol number: 12613001300763). The results may provide evidence for a novel adjunctive neurobiological approach for treating depression.

Emotional intelligence (EI) and pro-victim attitudes play an important role in adolescent bullying and victimisation. We recruited 284 male and female adolescents attending secondary school in Australia. All participants completed the adolescent version of the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test, the Peer Relations Questionnaire and the Revised Pro-victim Scale. Results revealed significant associations between bullying, victimisation, pro-victim attitudes and the EI dimensions. Regression analyses revealed greater Understanding Emotions, lower Emotional Management and Control, being male and having weaker Pro-Victim Attitudes to be significant predictors of engaging in bullying. Investigation of the influence of EI and pro-victim attitudes on victimisation revealed significant independent contributions to the prediction model of victimisation by lesser Emotional Management and Control and stronger Pro-Victim Attitudes. Pro-Social behaviours were predicted by the female gender and greater Understanding Emotions. Results have implications for management and intervention practices of school based adolescent bullying focussed on EI development.

The neurobiological basis of Emotional Intelligence (EI), which relates to our cognitive capacity to deal with emotions, is yet to be firmly established; although the amygdala and the dlPFC have been identified as two key brain regions required for emotional understanding and management. While proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) has previously been used to examine the in vivo neurochemical processes associated with psychiatric disorders, personality and general intelligence, this technique is yet to be applied to the construct of EI. In the current study, associations between the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT V2.0), the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) and N-acetylaspartate (NAA) and Choline (Cho) concentrations in the amygdala and dlPFC were investigated in thirty healthy participants (15 males with a mean age of 24.9 ± 2.7 years; 15 females with a mean age of 25.2 ± 4.5 years). A significant association between left dlPFC Cho concentrations and MSCEIT Managing Emotions was found, together with a significant association between left Amygdala Cho concentration and MSCEIT Understanding Emotions. In contrast, NAA resonance was found to be unrelated to ability EI in these regions. Possible interpretations of increased Cho resonance in association with ability EI are discussed, including increased myelin turnover in the amygdala and dlPFC which contributes to enhanced emotional processing.

Previous research has reported an association between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and scholastic achievement in adolescent samples; however, this relationship has not yet been studied in pre-adolescent samples. The current study was the first to explore the relationship between ability EI and scholastic achievement in pre-adolescent children, using a newly created measure of EI for younger children – the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test – Early Years (SUEIT-EY). Four hundred and seven girls and boys between the ages of 9 and 13 years were assessed on the SUEIT-EY, and scholastic results were collected for literacy and numeracy ability. Results indicated that a significant relationship existed between the ‘Understanding and Analysing Emotions’ (UAE) branch of the SUEIT-EY and measures of achievement in literacy and achievement in numeracy, for boys and girls, over and above the effect of age. Sequential Multiple Linear Regression Analyses found earlier developing UAE abilities to better predict scholastic achievement variables than the more complex UAE abilities, and accounted for 11% of the variation of both literacy and numeracy scores. 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Low cerebral blood flow velocity is associated with cognitive decline. However, the association between pulsatile brain blood flow velocity and cognition has not been investigated. High pulsatile hemodynamic stress in the brain may impair cognitive function through damage to small cerebral vessels. The current objective was to examine the cross-sectional association of pulsatile and mean cerebral blood flow velocity with age and neuropsychological performance. We also examined whether cerebral blood flow velocity was associated with aortic pulse pressure, a measure of arterial ageing and aortic stiffness. Cerebral blood flow velocity was measured in the middle cerebral artery using Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography (TDU) while neuropsychological performance was measured using a computerized cognitive test battery. Aortic pulse pressure was non-invasively derived from applanation tonometry of the radial artery. The sample comprised 160 healthy adults aged 50-70 years. Results indicated that increasing age correlated with lower mean (r=-0.23, p

Previous research has suggested that multivitamin (MV) supplementation may be associated with beneficial effects for mood and general well-being, although treatment durations have typically been less than 90 days, samples have often been restricted to males only and acute effects have not been adequately differentiated from chronic effects. In the current study a MV supplement containing high levels of B-vitamins was administered daily to 138 healthy young adult participants between the ages of 20 and 50 years over a 16-week period. Chronic mood measures (GHQ-28, POMS, Chalder fatigue, PILL, Bond-Lader and custom visual analogue scales) were administered pre-dose at baseline, 8- and 16-weeks. Changes in Bond-Lader and VAS in response to a multi-tasking framework (MTF) were also assessed at 8- and 16-weeks. For a subset of participants, at-home mobile-phone assessments of mood were assessed on a weekly basis using Bond-Lader and VAS. No significant treatment effects were found for any chronic laboratory mood measures. In response to the MTF, a significant treatment x time interaction was found for STAI-S, with a trend towards a greater increase in stress ratings for male participants in the MV group at 16 weeks. However, this finding may have been attributable to a larger proportion of students in the male MV group. In contrast, at-home mobile-phone assessments, where assessments were conducted post-dose, revealed significantly reduced stress, physical fatigue and anxiety in the MV group in comparison to placebo across a number of time points. Further research using both acute and chronic dosing regimens are required in order to properly differentiate these effects.

While a number of behavioural studies have been conducted to investigate the acute effects of amphetamines on tasks of attention and information processing, there is currently a scarcity of research concerning their electrophysiological effects in healthy adults. It is also unclear as to whether amphetamines exert effects on stimulus evaluation or response selection. In two studies, independent groups of twenty healthy illicit stimulant users aged between 21 and 32 years were administered 0.42 mg/kg d-amphetamine versus placebo, and 0.42 mg/kg d-methamphetamine versus placebo respectively, and completed an auditory oddball task on two separate testing days. A 62-channel EEG was recorded during the completion of the task, and the effects of amphetamines on N200 and P300 ERP components were analysed. d-amphetamine significantly decreased reaction time, improved accuracy, and reduced the latency of the P300 component relative to placebo, while having no effect on the N200 component. d-methamphetamine had no effect on reaction time, accuracy or the P300 component, but reduced the amplitude of the N200 component, relative to placebo. It was concluded that there is tentative support to suggest that d-amphetamine at a dose of 0.42 mg/kg may enhance speed of information processing while d-methamphetamine at a dose of 0.42 mg/kg may reflect changes to stimulus evaluation.

Green tea is reported to have wide ranging beneficial health outcomes across epidemiological studies, which have been attributed to its flavonoid content. We investigated whether the flavonoid epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) modulates brain activity and self-reported mood in a double-blind, placebo controlled crossover study. Participants completed baseline assessments of cognitive and cardiovascular functioning, mood and a resting state electroencephalogram (EEG) before and then 120 min following administration of 300 mg EGCG or matched placebo. EGCG administration was associated with a significant overall increase in alpha, beta and theta activity, also reflected in overall EEG activity, more dominant in midline frontal and central regions, specifically in the frontal gyrus and medial frontal gyrus. In comparison to placebo the EGCG treatment also increased self-rated calmness and reduced self rated stress. This pattern of results suggests that participants in the EGCG condition may have been in a more relaxed and attentive state after consuming EGCG. This is in keeping with the widespread consumption of green tea for its purported relaxing/refreshing properties. The modulation of brain function due to EGCG is deserving of further controlled human studies.

Illicit drugs such as MDMA and methamphetamine are commonly abused drugs that have also been observed to be prevalent in drivers injured in road accidents. Their exact effect on driving and driving behavior has yet to be thoroughly investigated.Sixty-one abstinent recreational users of illicit drugs comprised the participant sample, with 33 females and 28 males, mean age 25.45 years. The three testing sessions involved oral consumption of 100 mg MDMA, 0.42 mg/kg methamphetamine, or a matching placebo. The drug administration was counter-balanced, double-blind, and medically supervised. At each session driving performance was assessed 3 h and 24 h post drug administration on a computerized driving simulator.At peak concentration overall impairment scores for driving (F(2,118)=9.042, p0.001) and signaling (F(2,118)=4.060, p=0.020) were significantly different for the daytime simulations. Performance in the MDMA condition was worse than both the methamphetamine (p=0.023) and placebo (p0.001) conditions and the methamphetamine condition was also observed to be worse in comparison to the placebo (p=0.055). For signaling adherence, poorer signaling adherence occurred in both the methamphetamine (p=0.006) and MDMA (p=0.017) conditions in comparison to placebo in the daytime simulations.The findings of this study have for the first time illustrated how both MDMA and methamphetamine effect driving performance, and provide support for legislation regarding testing for the presence of illicit drugs in impaired or injured drivers as deterrents for driving under the influence of illicit drugs.

Research in the area of herbal psychopharmacology has increased markedly over the past decades. To date however, a comprehensive review of herbal antidepressant, anxiolytic and hypnotic psychopharmacology and applications in depression, anxiety and insomnia has been absent. A search of MEDLINE (PubMed), CINAHL, PsycINFO, and the Cochrane Library databases was conducted (up to February 21st 2011) on commonly used psychotropic herbal medicines. A review of the literature was conducted to ascertain mechanisms of action of these botanicals, in addition to a systematic review of controlled clinical trials for treatment of mood, anxiety and sleep disorders, which are common comorbid psychiatric disorders. Specific emphasis was given to emerging phytomedicines. Analysis of evidence levels was conducted, as were effect sizes (Cohen's d) where data were available. Results provided evidence of a range of neurochemical, endocrinological, and epigenetic effects for 21 individual phytomedicines, which are detailed in this paper. Sixty six controlled studies were located involving eleven phytomedicines. Several of these provide a high level of evidence, such as Hypericum perforatum for major depression, and Piper methysticum for anxiety disorders. Several human clinical trials provide preliminary positive evidence of antidepressant effects (Echium amoenum, Crocus sativus, and Rhodiola rosea) and anxiolytic activity (Matricaria recutita, Ginkgo biloba, Passiflora incanata, E. amoenum, and Scutellaria lateriflora). Caution should however be taken when interpreting the results as many studies have not been replicated. Several herbal medicines with in vitro and in vivo evidence are currently unexplored in human studies, and along with use of emerging genetic technologies "herbomics", are areas of potential future research.

The measurement invariance (i.e., omnibus, configural, metric and scalar) of the Bar-On EQ-i: S (Bar-On, 2002) was examined over two workplace (Australia, N = 350 and South Africa, N = 356) and two student samples (Canadian, N = 350 and Scottish, N = 238). The Vandenberg and Lance (2000) approach to measurement invariance was used. Differential item functioning (DIF) was investigated with the 2-way ANOVA approach (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997). Evidence of configural and metric, but not scalar or omnibus invariance, was found over both sets of analyses. Implications for cross-cultural assessment with the EQ-i: S are discussed.

Background This study investigates whether cognitive impairment is evident in inpatients diagnosed with Major Depression (MD) following electro-convulsive therapy (ECT), and if so, whether it is independent from depressive symptomatology. Methods Speed of information processing was measured using the inspection time (IT) task. IT was compared between twelve inpatients diagnosed with MD receiving ECT and twelve age-, gender-, verbal IQ-, and depression and anxiety severity matched control inpatients diagnosed with MD not receiving ECT, over four testing sessions (prior to ECT, following one ECT session, following the completion of an ECT block, and 4 to 6 weeks after the ECT block (follow-up)). Results The mean IT score for the inpatients diagnosed with MD who received ECT slowed significantly from the first ECT to immediately after the ECT block, and was significantly faster at follow-up. The mean IT score of the inpatients diagnosed with MD not receiving ECT gradually but significantly became faster over the entire equivalent time period. Limitations Small sample sizes. Conclusions ECT temporarily slows information processing speed in MD patients, independent of depression symptomatology.

The purpose of this paper was to evaluate the reliability and validity of a modified adolescent version of the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (Adolescent SUEIT). Study 1 identified qualitative changes and rewording of items necessary to make the SUEIT more ‘adolescent friendly’. In Study 2 the adolescent modified version of the SUEIT was administered to a larger sample of adolescents (N = 1002) to gather information on internal reliability, and to perform validity testing via exploratory factor analysis. The sub-scale reliability of the Adolescent SUEIT was found to be moderate to high, and a four-factor model was most representative of the adolescent sample. It was also noted that the more basic emotional intelligence (EI) abilities were positively related to age; females reported higher levels of emotional perception; and mean scores for the adolescent sample were below the norm for an adult population. With the amount of EI research with adolescents increasing, it is important to have valid and reliable tests available for research into important social and educational outcomes for adolescents. This initial evidence suggests the Adolescent SUEIT is a reliable and valid tool, and should be used to further understand the role of EI in adolescence, and how EI relates to important life criteria.

The effect of electromagnetic fields from digital mobile phones (DMP) on cognitive functioning is an area receiving increased attention. This study compares the performance of 120 volunteers on 8 neuropsychological tests during real or sham exposure to a DMP set to maximum permissible radiofrequency power output. When results were adjusted for known covariates (gender, age, or education), several alterations at significance levels of p < 0.05 were obtained. Of these, simple and choice reaction times (CRT) showed strong evidence of impairment. Further, performance on the Trail Making Task (TMT) improved, supporting the hypothesis that DMP radiofrequency emissions improve the speed of processing of information held in working memory.

The consumption of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as cannabis has been shown to result in impaired and culpable driving. Testing drivers for the presence of THC in blood is problematic as THC and its metabolites may remain in the blood for several days following its consumption, even though the drug may no longer have an influence on driving performance. In the present study, the aim was to assess whether performance on the standardised field sobriety tests (SFSTs) provides a sensitive measure of impaired driving behaviour following the consumption of THC. In a repeated measures design, 40 participants consumed cigarettes that contained either 0% THC (placebo), 1.74% THC (low dose) or 2.93% THC (high dose). For each condition, after smoking a cigarette, participants performed the SFSTs on three occasions (5, 55 and 105 min after the smoking procedure had been completed) as well as a simulated driving test on two occasions (30 and 80 min after the smoking procedure had been completed). The results revealed that driving performance was not significantly impaired 30 min after the consumption of THC but was significantly impaired 80 min after the consumption of THC in both the low and high dose conditions. The percentage of participants whose driving performance was correctly classified as either impaired or not impaired based on the SFSTs ranged between 65.8 and 76.3%, across the two THC conditions. The results suggest that performance on the SFSTs provides a moderate predictor of driving impairment following the consumption of THC and as such, the SFSTs may provide an appropriate screening tool for authorities that wish to assess the driving capabilities of individuals suspected of being under the influence of a drug other than alcohol.

Research to-date on the dimensionality of the Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence (SSREI; Schutte et al., 1998 ) scale appears to support a four-factor interpretation, corresponding to Optimism, Social Skills, Emotional Regulation and Utilization of Emotions. However, the model of EI upon which the SSREI is based ( Salovey & Mayer, 1990 ) has never been considered when determining the number of factors to extract/model in the factor analyses. Thus, in this investigation, we examined the CFA fit of several models, comparing the four-factor model reported by Saklofske, Austin, and Minski (2003) , and the six-factor model of EI described by Salovey and Mayer (1990) . The CFA results indicated that two of the six dimensions of the Salovey and Mayer (1990) model of EI could not be identified, independently of first-order general and acquiescent factors. Specifically, while ‘appraisal of emotions in the self’, ‘appraisal of emotions in others’, ‘emotional regulation of the self’, and ‘utilizing emotions in problem solving’ were identified, ‘emotional regulation of others’ and ‘emotional expression’ were not. The results are discussed in light of how the SSREI could be potentially improved for the purposes of measuring the dimensions within the Salovey and Mayer model (1990) .

Despite extensive research on the effects of cannabis on cognitive and motor performance, studies administering computerised cognitive batteries and pencil-and-paper tests have not provided consistent results. Contributing factors are the broad range of tests used, together with a lack of sensitivity for assessing specific cognitive processes. This study for the first time assesses a very early cognitive process, information processing, that is sufficiently fundamental as to be immune from higher cognitive, motivational, and social processes. Information processes are thought to represent the basic building blocks of higher order cognitive processes. The inspection time (IT) task was used to investigate the effects of acute and subacute cannabis use on information processing in 22 heavy users, compared to 22 noncannabis-using controls. Findings indicate that users in the subacute state display significantly slowed information-processing speeds (longer ITs) compared to controls. Paradoxically, this deficit appears to be normalised whilst users are in the acute state. These results may be explained as a withdrawal effect, but may also be due to tolerance development as a result of long-term cannabis use. Furthermore, these results may assist in providing an explanation for the development of dependence with chronic cannabis users.

Past studies that have examined the relationship between Openness and crystallized ability have failed to account statistically for the fact that subtests commonly regarded as measures of crystallized intelligence (e.g., Vocabulary) are contaminated substantially by general intelligence. A method using residuals derived from a regression is proposed as a means to estimate crystallized ability. Further, self-reported intelligence was hypothesized to moderate or mediate the correlation between Openness and crystallized intelligence. It was found that two factors (General and Objective) could be derived from a principal components analysis (PCA) of the six Openness facets and that only Objective Openness correlated with intelligence. Using the residual approach to estimating crystallized ability, it was found that Objective Openness correlated with only g and not crystallized ability. The self-report intelligence measure correlated only with the General Openness factor. Based on the results of this study and a review of the empirical literature, it is argued that Openness should be correlated with g and that this correlation should exist based on theory. It is recommended that future research use the residual approach to estimating crystallized ability, and that a new emphasis on understanding the relationship between Openness and g is required.

It has been claimed that the dimensional structure of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) (Bar-On, 1997a) represents a hierarchical model of emotional and social intelligence describing a general factor, five-second order factors and 15 primary factors. However, there are several anomalies in the factor analytic methodology employed by Bar-On (1997a), and his interpretation of the results that render the dimensional structure of the EQ-i unclear. In contrast to claims by Bar-On, in the present study a series of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses found evidence for a general factor of emotional intelligence and six primary factors. Differences between the results reported by Bar-On (1997a) and those of the current study are attributed largely to the more appropriate factor analytic methodology employed. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

This study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and life satisfaction. To determine the nature of this relationship, personality constructs known to predict life satisfaction were also assessed (positive and negative affect). Emotional intelligence was assessed in 107 participants using a modified version of the Trait Meta-Mood Scale [TMMS; Salovey, P, Mayer, J., Goldman, S., Turvey, C. & Palfai, T.1995. Emotional attention, clarity and repair: exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed), pp. 125–154. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association ] and the Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale [TAS-20; J. Psychosom Res, 38 (1994) 26]. Life satisfaction was assessed using the Satisfaction With Life Scale [SWLS; J. Pers. Social Psycol., 69 (1985) 71]. Only the Clarity sub-scale of the TMMS (which indexes perceived ability to understand and discriminate between moods and emotions), and the Difficulty Identifying Feelings sub-scale of the TAS-20 were found to significantly correlate with life satisfaction. Subsequent analyses revealed that only the Clarity sub-scale accounted for further variance in life satisfaction not accounted for by positive and negative affect. This finding provides further evidence that components of the EI construct account for variance in this important human value not accounted for by personality. Implications and directions for further research are discussed.

Lateralization for temporal processing was investigated using evoked potentials to an auditory and visual gap detection task in 12 dextral adults. The auditory stimuli consisted of 300-ms bursts of white noise, half of which contained an interruption lasting 4 or 6 ms. The visual stimuli consisted of 130-ms flashes of light, half of which contained a gap lasting 6 or 8 ms. The stimuli were presented bilaterally to both ears or both visual fields. Participants made a forced two-choice discrimination using a bimanual response. Manipulations of the task had no effect on the early evoked components. However, an effect was observed for a late positive component, which occurred approximately 300-400 ms following gap presentation. This component tended to be later and lower in amplitude for the more difficult stimulus conditions. An index of the capacity to discriminate gap from no-gap stimuli was gained by calculating the difference waveform between these conditions. The peak of the difference waveform was delayed for the short-gap stimuli relative to the long-gap stimuli, reflecting decreased levels of difficulty associated with the latter stimuli. Topographic maps of the difference waveforms revealed a prominence over the left hemisphere. The visual stimuli had an occipital parietal focus whereas the auditory stimuli were parietally centered. These results confirm the importance of the left hemisphere for temporal processing and demonstrate that it is not the result of a hemispatial attentional bias or a peripheral sensory asymmetry.

The present study investigated whether a battery of tests designed to measure different levels of emotional intelligence could differentiate adolescent sex offenders from a non-offender control group. Fifteen male adolescent sex offenders ranging in age from 14 to 17 years were recruited through Health and Community Services (VIC, Australia) and 49 non-offender males, matched for age, completed the battery. The battery comprised the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS), Davis' Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP-32), the Revised Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) and the Openness to Feelings facet of the NEO PI-R. Discriminant analyses using all five tests showed that 89·9 per cent of the sample were correctly allocated their respective groups. Overall the sex offenders were higher on aggression and attention to feelings, less clear about their feelings and less capable to repair unpleasant moods and prolong positive ones. It was concluded that these findings could be the focus of treatment approaches for adolescent sex offenders.

Inspection time (IT), an information-processing correlate of psychometric intelligence, has been extensively studied. Previous research has shown that IT is a reliable correlate of psychometric intelligence across different developmental periods, mirroring developmental trends of fluid intelligence. Despite this extensive previous literature, very little is known about the biological basis of IT. In the present review, we discuss recent results from our laboratories examining the neurochemical determinants of IT. In this review, we outline the significance of several studies in which performance on the IT task is measured before and after modulating key human central nervous system (CNS) neurotransmitters and receptor systems (e.g., cholinergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and dopaminergic systems). The results of these studies indicate a primarily cholinergic basis for IT, although other aspects of psychometric intelligence may have serotonergic and dopaminergic determinants in addition to a cholinergic basis. The results are consistent with data reporting cholinergic depletion and impaired IT performance in dementia of the Alzheimer's type (DAT). Speculatively, we propose that compounds that enhance the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) will improve IT and the variance that IT shares with IQ test performance.

Previous research utilizing brain imaging techniques has indicated that the prefrontal, parietal and occipital areas all play a role in spatial working memory. Previous psychometric research has indicated a positive relationship between performance on working memory tasks and intelligence. The aim of the present study was to integrate these two lines of research by studying the electrophysiological processes underlying spatial working memory across subjects varying in psychometric intelligence. Steady-state probe topography (SSPT) was used to investigate the cortical activity of 12 average and 12 high IQ volunteers during a spatial working memory task. Holding spatial information in working memory resulted in an increase in the steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) latency in frontal areas, while in parietal and occipital areas there was a decrease in SSVEP latency and an increase in SSVEP amplitude. Increasing the memory load of the working memory task was found to decrease SSVEP latency in the occipital, parietal and right temporal areas and decrease the SSVEP amplitude in the right occipital area. The magnitude of these SSVEP amplitude and latency differences were greater for the high IQ group than for the average IQ group, particularly in posterior areas. These results suggest that the areas of the brain involved in working memory are influenced by individual differences in intelligence.

While the inspection time (IT) paradigm has proved itself as one of our best candidates for a reductive measure of general ability, some unsolved problems impede interpretation of the correlation between IQ scores and IT. Foremost among these are concerns that stimulus artifacts may reduce the validity of IT as a measure of processing speed. Attempts to use meta-contrast masks to eliminate apparent movement strategy have proven unsuccessful [Am J Psychol 106 (1993) 191.]. This paper reports on the effectiveness of three backward masks to reduce apparent motion strategies in the IT paradigm as well as assessing putative personality effects on masking and IT. The ability of subjects to use apparent motion was investigated using the traditional IT mask, and two new masks: flash and lines. Apparent motion was most frequently reported by subjects under the traditional masking condition. IQ scores based on a test of figural manipulation (Alice Heim 5 figural) were significantly negatively correlated with reported perception and use of apparent motion cues in the standard IT mask condition, but not in the new mask conditions. Significant negative correlations between IT and IQ were obtained in all masking conditions, suggesting that the use of apparent motion cues does not determine the significant and negative correlation between IT and IQ. Results suggested that future research should employ masks of the type tested here.

Eysenck (1983) has previously proposed biological mechanisms for his three personality dimensions. From a psychometric perspective there has been a growing acceptance of a five-factor model of personality incorporating two of Eysenck's dimensions Extraversion (E) and Neuroticism (N) together with Openness to Experience (O), Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C). Despite the growing acceptance of the ‘Big 5’ model of personality there has been very few studies that have examined the biological basis of O, A and C. In an exploratory study we report the correlations between photic driving at alpha, beta-1, beta-2, delta and theta bands and O, A and C from the NEO PI-R in 16 participants. Significant correlations between the EEG at frontal, occipital–parietal and central–temporal areas at different driving frequencies with O, A and C are discussed.

The high alpha/low beta range of the spontaneous EEG appears to be particularly sensitive to the effects of nicotine. The present study examined the acute effects of nicotine on the topography of the 13 Hz steady-state visually evoked potential (SSVEP).Thirteen moderate smokers participated in a repeated-measures design. The amplitude and latency of the SSVEP elicited by an unstructured sinusoidal 13 Hz flicker following a0. 05 mg nicotine cigarette were compared to those following a 0.8 mg nicotine cigarette.The nicotine condition was associated with an increase in the amplitude of the SSVEP, when compared to the placebo condition, and this increase was greatest in central and right parietal regions. The latency of the SSVEP was reduced in the nicotine condition in bilateral frontal and right parietal regions.These results are similar to the effects of nicotine seen in studies examining spontaneous EEG, and are consistent with other studies indicating that the 13 Hz SSVEP indexes brain electrical activity in the high alpha/low beta range. The findings are discussed in terms of possible functional significance of nicotine-induced cortical activation in this frequency range.

Two experiments are presented which were designed to enhance the sensitivity of RT as an information processing correlate of general ability. The first measured RT to a rapid game-like sequence of stimuli using 16 participants. Correlations with IQ in this task were negligible. The second experiment adapted the methodology of Jensen & Munro (1979). Stimuli were presented at a constant, reduced ISI to lower uncertainty about stimulus onset time and to decrease the session duration. Measurement of the decision time period was enhanced in two ways. The stimulus duration was shortened to 50 ms, thus fixing the onset of decision time to within 50 ms of stimulus onset. In addition, stimulus masking was used to restrict sampling of the stimulus to the period prior to movement onset. Finally, participants were reinforced verbally when they exceeded their own average performance to aid motivation. Using this method, data recorded from 30 participants showed a correlation of 0.56 between WAIS-R Full Scale IQ and rate of information processing as measured by the difference in the RTs recorded for two and four choice tasks (0.71 if corrected for restriction of range). These data are interpreted in terms of mental efficiency theories of intelligence.

Mental-speed theories of intelligence (Spearman, The abilities of man , 1927; Lemmon, Archives of Psychology , 15, 5–38, 1927–1928; Jensen, Journal of Social and Biological Structures , 3, 103–122, 1980; Jensen, Speed of information processing and intelligence , 1987) are challenged by the finding that, in some methods, bright subjects do not appear to process information at an increased speed. The present experiment was designed to explore new RT measures which might relate more strongly to IQ while possessing a clear theoretical relationship to biological theories of intelligence. One direct measure of information processing speed is the rate at which choice reaction time ( RT ) increases with increasing stimulus information content ( RT slope). While RT slope is a critical variable in mental-speed models of intelligence, the results of several experiments, since Jensen proposed his model, suggest that slope does not correlate strongly with intelligence. We investigated the possibility that spatial attention affects the relationship between RT and IQ in the traditional Jensen paradigm. Thirty-five subjects performed an RT task with two and four choice stimuli presented in narrow and wide spatial configurations. Correlations between Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) scores and RT were in line with previous reports of a moderate negative relationship between IQ and RT . However, a much stronger effect was found in the relative speed in the narrow and wide spatial display conditions. The wide minus narrow RT difference in the two-choice condition correlated 0.71 with APM scores. This result suggests that the processing speed advantage of high IQ subjects is best revealed under optimal attentional conditions. It is suggested that this result supports the speed of processing model of intelligence. Paradoxically, the traditional Jensen paradigm confounds the high choice orders with increased spatial attention demands, thus artifactually increasing the RT slope in high, but not in low, IQ subjects. Explicit control of spatial attention requirements indicates that individual differences in intelligence are substantially underpinned by differences in the speed of information processing mechanisms which, in high IQ subjects, require focused attention if they are to be deployed adequately.