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Haemorrhagic shock is the most common preventable cause of early mortality in polytrauma patients. Road traffic injuries are the most common cause for polytrauma and most commonly include orthopaedic injuries. Hence, orthopaedic trainees and junior orthopaedic surgeons need to be well aware of evaluation and management of haemorrhagic shock in the multiple injured patient. The present narrative review discusses evaluation and current principles in management of haemorrhagic shock in a polytrauma patient. A classification system for haemorrhagic shock based on ATLS guidelines has been described along with novel use of colour coding to facilitate better and effective use of the classification. A treatment algorithm has also been presented for quick reference. The emphasis is to avoid overloading with crystalloid fluids, replacing with blood and blood products (Balanced resuscitation), permissive hypotension, prevent and acutely treat lethal conditions such as hypothermia, acidosis and coagulopathy. The management of haemorrhagic shock in polytrauma patient is quite challenging and require a detailed knowledge of its management. An arbitrary and haphazard management of these patients may lead to severe complications. We have mentioned the broad principles of management of hypovolemic shock in a polytrauma patient.

Colour vision-the ability to discriminate spectral differences irrespective of variations in intensity-has two basic requirements: (1) photoreceptors with different spectral sensitivities, and (2) neural comparison of signals from these photoreceptors. Major progress has been made understanding the evolution of the basic stages of colour vision-opsin pigments, screening pigments, and the first neurons coding chromatic opponency, and similarities between mammals and insects point to general mechanisms. However, much work is still needed to unravel full colour pathways in various animals. While primates may have brain regions entirely dedicated to colour coding, animals with small brains, such as insects, likely combine colour information directly in parallel multisensory pathways controlling various behaviours.

The manipulation of colour in display symbology design has been recognised as a method to improve operator experience and performance. An earlier paper by the authors demonstrated that redundantly colour coding head-up flight symbology supported the manual flying performance of both professional and non-professional pilots during low-workload flying scenarios. In this study the workload and performance of 12 professional airline pilots was evaluated in high workload conditions whilst they flew manoeuvres and an instrument landing system (ILS) approach with and without the presence of colour feedback on a head up display (HUD). Workload was manipulated by presenting pilots with a concurrent auditory n-back task. Colour coded flight symbology reduced the subjective workload of the pilots during high workload conditions. In contrast, manual flying performance during high workload was not improved by the presence of colour coded feedback.

Through a mixed-design experiment we compare how emergency-department clinicians perform when solving realistic work tasks with an electronic whiteboard where the application of information filters is visualized either by blocking, colour-coding or blurring information. We find that clinicians perform significantly faster and with less effort and temporal demand when using the blocking interface. However, we also find that the colour-coding interface provides clinicians with a better overview of the information displayed by the electronic whiteboard. The blurring interface did not perform as well as previous research has shown and we discuss the differences between these results and ours. Finally, we find that the clinicians worked much less in parallel than we had expected and discuss the reasons for this.

The colour-changing stimulus paradigm is based on a tacit assumption that kinematic attributes (velocity, movement direction) do not affect the detection of colour change (Moutoussis & Zeki, 1997). In this study three experiments are reported that clearly demonstrate that the time needed to detect changes in colouration of a moving stimulus becomes shorter with its velocity. The reduction of reaction time with increase of velocity is a purely kinematic effect independent on the reduction of reaction time caused by the stimulus uncertainty effects. It is concluded that colour coding mechanisms are not totally ignorant about movement parameters.

Summary When most emergency medical caregivers are asked about the type of patients who truly inspire fear, more often than not, the answer is "children". Why is there this inverse relationship between the age of the patient and the caregiver's level of anxiety? Perhaps the answer to this question is that while emergency personnel regularly provide medical and trauma care for adults, many of us see critically ill children or pediatric trauma patients only on a rare, if not very rare, basis. 2–6 Recognising the effect of this anxiety has led to ongoing efforts to find ways to minimise the source of these stressors. This article will review the history, present status, and hopeful future of the Broselow tape – which was initially designed to assist in the quick and accurate estimation of weight in cases of pediatric trauma – with a specific focus on its applications for pediatric trauma care.

Eighteen people participated in an experiment in which they were asked to search for targets on control room like displays which had been produced using three different coding methods. The monochrome coding method displayed the information in black and white only, the maximally discriminable method contained colours chosen for their high perceptual discriminability, the visual layers method contained colours developed from psychological and cartographic principles which grouped information into a perceptual hierarchy. The visual layers method produced significantly faster search times than the other two coding methods which did not differ significantly from each other. Search time also differed significantly for presentation order and for the method x order interaction. There was no significant difference between the methods in the number of errors made. Participants clearly preferred the visual layers coding method. Proposals are made for the design of experiments to further test and develop the visual layers colour coding methodology.

The cubic P , G , D and I-WP triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) may be closely approximated using periodic nodal surfaces (PNS) with few Fourier terms, thus enabling easy generation of TPMS for use in various chemical and physical applications. The accuracy of such approximations is quantitatively discussed and represented visually using a colour coding.

Objective : To quantify first-pass enhancement of cervix carcinoma using fast dynamic MRI. To assess the accuracy of dynamic contrast-enhanced colour-coded MRI for determining tumour invasion into surrounding pelvic tissues. Methods : Gadolinium enhanced dynamic MRI at one image every 2 s was performed in 47 patients with cervical carcinoma and five controls. First-pass contrast enhancement of cervix carcinoma and surrounding pelvic tissues was quantified. Automated colour-coded images were constructed using the dynamic parameters slope, amplitude and timing of enhancement. Of 47 patients, 28 underwent surgery and colour coded images were correlated with histological findings. Results : First-pass contrast enhancement imaging of cervix carcinoma required a temporal resolution of dynamic MRI of one image every 3–4s. Cervix carcinoma firstpass was more rapid and intense than that of other pelvic tissues ( P P >0.05). Binary colour coding, however, was not reliable for tumour delineation or for accurate assessment of tumour invasion into the parametria or the bladder wall. Overestimation of the extent of tumour invasion occurred in 15, 16 and nine out of 28 patients, respectively, using amplitude, slope and timing of enhancement as parameters. Conclusion : Dynamic contrast-enhanced colour-coded MRI of cervix carcinoma has limited value for assessing the extent of tumour spread and tumour staging.

Subjects sought a unique target shape in a display of distractor shapes under three colour coding conditions. In the no colour coding condition ( NCC ) all shapes shared the same colour. In the two colour-coded conditions, the target was uniquely and redundantly colour coded with a colour whose CIE 1976 UCS chromaticity coordinates were either linearly separable ( LS ) or not linearly separable ( NLS ) from the set of distractor chromaticity coordinates. Performance was optimal under LS coding, was reduced under NLS coding and was least efficient in the NCC condition. We discuss the implications of these results for refining colour selection algorithms and for colour coding in situations where the gamut of available colours is limited. © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.

Recent neuroscientific findings concerning the relationship between the perceptive, cognitive and linguistic aspects of colour suggest that colour concept retrieval would be enhanced by free colour naming or by the use of natural associations between colour concepts and colour words. To test this hypothesis, we had subjects give their own free associations to a set of 35 colours presented on a display. The results suggest that subjects with normal colour vision are able to identify absolutely 30 colours or more without training if colours are well separated, basic colours are used and colour concepts and colour words are naturally associated.

A texture analysis technique is presented, based on multiresolution Fourier analysis of images. Conventional subimage Fourier analysis produces results which are not easily assimilated. This paper proposes the use of colour to give an accessible display of such results. The described colour coding can, in principle, be applied in conjunction with any texture analysis algorithm. Application of the technique to medical magnetic-resonance images is given as an example.

A ‘slow scan’ charge-coupled device camera has been adapted for luminance and radiance measurement of displays used in night-vision goggle compatible aircraft. A video lightmeter offers several advantages over conventional test methods including high-speed image capture and colour coding of the digital image data. The colour coding feature facilitates evaluation of the test display uniformity. Numerical values for luminance and infra-red radiance are also extracted from the image data.

The present study examined factors that decreased task complexity so that a technology which temporally, rather than spatially, distributed information (i.e. RAP COM, for rapid communication) would result in performace advantages. This was accomplished by physically integrating the stimulus information into either the display format (i.e. an analog format) or into the response coding scheme (i.e. a colour coding scheme). Performance using the RAP COM display indicated a lower proportion of errors for the analog than for the digital format; however, a longer mean response time for a correct response was found for the analog than for the digital format. Two colour coding response schemes were used: (a)_a continuous scheme that comparised gradual changes between red and blue; (b) a distinctive scheme consisting of the colours cyan, green, yellow, orange, red, mauve, purple and blue. When the continuous colour coding responses scheme was used, performance using the RAP COM display, as compared with the spatial display, was no different after extended practice. The results of these experiments taken together indicate that the RAP COM display type may be a viable technology for some limited ‘real world’ environments.

Basic colours segregate well in displays, but no better than non-basic ones equally well separated in colour space. Basic colour coding was compared with an individual's preferred code made up of a personal choice of colours. These codes yielded equally good segragation when assessed in a visual search task. However, when tested on another person's codes, with which they had had no previous experience, there was a suggestion that subjects were quicker to learn the basic than the idiosyncratic code. When coding qualitative data in a crowded display the authors advocate a code made up of the user's internally-generated set of basic colours. This code is easy to generate and obviates the need for complicated colour calibration procedures.

Two experiments were carried out to examine the effects of colour, shape and colour-shape codes, for different retention-interval and task conditions, on the time taken to retrieve target information from memory in a keeping-track task. The first experiment used ‘filled’ symbols, and the second experiment used ‘hatched’ symbols. In the first experiment, the response time was faster across tasks and retention intervals with colour-shape coding or colour coding than with shape coding, regardless of whether or not the targets were updated. However, the benefit of both colour conditions was greater for the case in which the targets were updated while the subjects performed a distractor task during the retention interval; i.e. the colour showed a greater resistance to interference effects. Colour-shape coding was superior to colour coding across tasks and under specific retention-interval/update conditions. In the second experiment, the response time was faster with colour-shape coding than with shape coding for both the update and no-update conditions, but this advantage was more pronounced in the latter case, owing to a decrease in the response time for colour-shape coding with no updates. Finally, the response time was faster with colour coding than shape coding in the no-update condition, and was faster with colour-shape coding than with colour coding in the update condition. Taken together, the findings suggested that, in situations where it is important to retrieve information quickly, information should be coded by colour-shape coding rather than by colour or shape coding, regardless of the symbol set used. Also, the relationships between coding conditions differed considerably with different symbol sets, implying that the symbol set used can play a crucial role in the optimization of coding effectiveness.

An object-oriented analysis-synthesis coder is presented which encodes arbitrarily shaped objects instead of rectangular blocks. The objects are described by three parameter sets defining their motion, shape and colour. Throughout this contribution, the colour parameters denote the luminance and chrominance values of the object surface. The parameter sets of each object are obtained by image analysis based on source models of moving 2D-objects and coded by an object-dependent parameter coding. Using the coded parameter sets an image can be reconstructed by model-based image synthesis. In order to cut down the generated bit-rate of the parameter coding, the colour updating of an object is suppressed if the modelling of the object by the source model is sufficiently exact, i.e., if only a relatively small colour update information would be needed for an errorless image synthesis. Omitting colour update information, small position errors of objects denoted as geometrical distortions are allowed for image synthesis instead of quantization error distortions. Tolerating geometrical distortions, the image area to be updated by colour coding can be decreased to 4% of the image size without introducing annoying distortions. As motion and shape parameters can efficiently be coded, about 1 bit per pel remains for colour updating in a 64 kbit/s coder compared to about 0.1 bit per pel in the standard reference coder (RM8) of the CCITT. Experimental results concerning the efficient coding of motion and shape parameters are given and discussed. The coding of the colour information will be dealt with in further research.

Arising from complaints from KLM pilots about poor legibility of en route navigation charts, a study was carried out to assess the importance of the various information categories on the charts. Using the results, a different colour coding was devised and a test chart was printed using this new colour coding. The test chart was distributed en route and was judged better than the current chart by a vast majority of the pilots.

A theory of retinal colour coding based closely on recent anatomical and physiological results is presented. Opponent colour channels are shown to be an inevitable result of any randomly distributed retinal cone mosaic, the structure of red-green opponent colour channels remaining uninfluenced by a predominance of “red” or “green” cones. These findings circumvent the conflict between anatomical results with more “green” than “red” cones and psychophysical estimations with more “red” than “green” cones. The effect of receptor compression and opponent colour transformation on colour perception is investigated. Non-opponency of pure green and pure red could be attributed to receptor compression, the Bezold-Brucke phenomenon, however, to the antagonism of “red” and “green” cones within the receptive field surround of red-green opponent cells. The fundamental colours are estimated to be supersaturated violet, yellow-green and yellow-red.

The evaluation of colour within real-time air traffic control simulations is described with particular reference to distinguishing categories of information, designating tasks and highlighting specific information. Further consideration is given to the advantages and disadvantages of colour coding within an air traffic control context, with reference to relevant literature. Some recommendations are made for the utilization of colour coding, which are particularly relevant to electronic air traffic control displays.

An interactive method is used to define parameters of colour codes on CRT displays and the applications of this method given for the design of digital maps on electronic displays. The present approach is based on the concept of the photocolorimetric space, which offers the opportunity for the formal description of CRT characteristics. An experiment using this method for colouring electronic map displays is described and the results are presented.

This survey presents a unified view of the history, rationale, applications, and current status of colour-coding schlieren optical techniques, based on an extensive literature review. The characteristics and advantages of this unique flow visualization tool are discussed in terms of one- and two-dimensional colour-coding, qualitative and quantitative visualisations, and system sensitivity, range and resolution. In particular, the use of matched spatial filters to tailor the schlieren optics for specific applications is stressed. A wide range of past applications in fluid flow and heat transfer is surveyed. Connections are drawn among these applications and some new applications are discussed.

This paper presents an evaluation of different keyboard display coding schemes for the operation of a speech synthesizer by children with cerebral palsy. The synthesizer uses 128 function keys to access 393 words and 45 phonemes. Most keys activate four different words or phrases, requiring the user to search for the desired word and to select the correct positional level prior to pressing the key. This process was quite slow with the existing machine due to the design of the keyboard display. A study was conducted in which five cerebral palsied subjects operated the device using four additional keyboard overlays representing different combinations of colour coding and lettering case. The time was measured for subjects to key in 10-word sequences. It was determined that one overlay using a colour and position redundant coding scheme with upper-case lettering resulted in a saving of more than 20 s/word compared with the original display.

The reaction of wavelength-selective (WL), wavelength-opponent (WLO) and colour-coded (CO) cells in monkey visual cortex to changes in the wavelength composition of the light reflected from the area in their receptive fields was studied, using multicoloured displays. Wavelength-selective and wavelength-opponent cells were found to be very sensitive to changes in the wavelength composition of the light reflected from the areas in their receptive fields, irrespective of their perceived natural and void colours. Changes in the wavelength composition of the light reflected from surrounding areas did not affect their responses. They were also sensitive to the order in which lights of various wavelengths illuminated the areas in their receptive fields. Colour-coded cells were not affected by changes in the wavelength composition nor were they sensitive to the sequence with which the area in their receptive fields was illuminated by lights of different wavelengths. However, they required that the display, with the area of their preferred colour in their receptive fields, be trichromatically illuminated. This and other evidence suggested that such cells were sensitive not only to the illumination of the area in their receptive fields, but of surrounding areas as well. This evidence reinforces further the distinction between wavelength-selective and colour-coded cells and leads to the conclusion that one function of the wavelength-selective cells must be to register the changes in wavelength composition which occur throughout the day.

Visual sensitivity can be directly measured by arranging that evoked potential (EP) amplitude controls stimulus intensity (method of evoked potential feedback). A second technique is to directly plot graphs of EP amplitude vs the required stimulus parameter: this method gives more precise estimates of the shapes of EP plots than the conventional procedure of measuring individual points. The practical details, advantages and drawbacks of these two rapid techniques are discussed. Pattern EPs are mediated via colour channels, whereas EPs to rapidly flickering lights are mediated by pooled colour signals. The red pattern channel's peak sensitivity falls at a wavelength no shorter than 580–610 nm compared with the 555 nm peak for flicker sensitivity. An objective analogue of the psychophysical increment threshold procedure is made possible by means of EP feedback. Stimulus pattern intensity is approximately proportional to adapting intensity down to a pattern intensity of 5–10 td. below which EP amplitude attenuates rapidly.

One of the striking features o f the anatomical organisation o f the prestriate cortex in the monkey is the mosaic o f sub-areas into which it may be divided on the basis of the afferent input, efferent output and inter-hemispheric connections of its individual partsl , 5-s. Such a mosaic organisation no doubt reflects a functional division of labour within the prestriate cortex for handling the various parameters o f vision, the emphasis on any particular function in any particular area being presumably dictated by the organisation of the afferent input to that area. The topographically organised pointto-point input f rom the lateral geniculate nucleus to area 17 is reflected functionally in the detailed region-by-region form analysis that this area performs 4. On the other hand, the overlapping, convergent input f rom area 17 to the cortex o f the posterior bank of the superior temporal sulcus is reflected functionally in the generalisation for receptive field position and the emergence o f movement as a critical stimulus parameter 2. In this paper, we report briefly the response properties o f units to simple visual stimulation in another prestriate area, the fourth visual area (V4) which we have already defined anatomically 7. This area lies in the anterior bank of the lunate sulcus dorsally and, because of the complicated gyral changes, emerges ventrally in the posterior bank of the inferior occipital sulcus 7. It receives an input f rom areas 18 and 19 but this projection does not appear to be very precisely defined topographically. We have recorded f rom 77 single units in this area, in 8 monkeys, using tungsten-inglass microelectrodes, and in every case the units have been cotour coded, responding vigorously to one wavelength and grudgingly, or not at all, to other wavelengths or to white light at different intensities. The animals were anaesthetised with sodium pentobarbital and paralysed with gallamine triethiodide (5 mg/kg/h). A hole was drilled in the skull over the appropriate

By using a white light source and based on the self correlation effect of a group of moving particles, a method is proposed for measuring the velocity and acceleration of the particles. This velocity can be colour coded. A simple theoretical analysis is given and a simulation experiment is presented. The method is simple and economic.

This poster illustrates the way in which a regular cytogenetic service for blood, bone marrow and amniotic fluid specimens has been made available to patients living in country areas of Queensland. The map shows the origin of these specimens with appropriate colour coding for the type of sample. Flow charts, demonstrating methods of transportation, are included in the display. The strict laboratory policy is emphasized by continuous correspondence to the country centres, regarding collection of specimens. Those which are improperly collected or submitted on the wrong day are not accepted. Preliminary results are also withheld if the specimen is not accompanied by appropriate clinical information. Collection instructions and clinical information sheets are supplied to all centres. The increasing demand for this service to the country areas of this Slate is shown on the graph. A chart showing the percentage of abnormalities detected is presented. Genetic counselling services are made available to country patients through the State Health Laboratory by use of the clinics at the Royal Brisbane Hospital and the Mater Hospital, Brisbane.