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Acrylic acid (AA) is an important and widely used industrial chemical, but its high toxicity renders its use incompatible with the concept of green development. By leveraging its terminal carboxyl group and unsaturated bond, we designed and explored a new strategy to increase the greenness of AA via its eutectic melting using a quaternary ammonium salt (choline chloride) to form a deep eutectic solvent (DES), followed by polymerisation of the DES to form a polymer (poly(DES)). The greenness of AA, DES, and poly(DES) was evaluated via an in vitro test using MGC80-3 cells and an in vivo test using Kunming mice. The toxicity improved from Grade 2 (moderately toxic) for AA to Grade 1 (slightly toxic) for DESs and Grade 0 (non-toxic) for poly(DES) in the in vitro test. Moreover, the poly(DES)s showed a lower toxicity in mice than the DESs in the in vivo test. Thus, greenness enhancement was successfully achieved, with the greenness following the order AA

10 Páginas.-- 6 Figuras.-- 1 Tabla, The main by-product from olive oil extraction (alperujo) was extracted with hot water, citric acid, natural deep eutectic solvent (choline chloride: citric acid), and only choline chloride. The purified extracts were composed of macromolecular complexes constituting polyphenols associated with pectin. The extracts were structurally characterized by FT-IR and solid-NMR spectroscopy and an in vitro test revealed distinct antioxidant and antiproliferative activity, depending on the extracting agents. The choline chloride-extracted complex contained the highest amount of polyphenols among the examined agents, which exhibited a strong antioxidant activity and significant antiproliferative capacity. However, the complex extracted by hot water showed the highest antiproliferative capacity in vitro against the colon carcinoma Caco-2 cell line. In this finding, choline chloride could be used as a novel, green and promising alternative to the conventional extracting agent for the production of complexes that combine the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds and the physiological effects of pectic polysaccharides., A. Bermúdez-Oria received funding from Council of Economic Transformation, Industry, Knowledge and Universities of the Junta de Andalucía, co-financed by the European Social Fund. Researcher doctor (DOC_00166). M.L Castejón received funding from Ministerio de Universidades of Spain under grant Margarita Salas (COD 19982). This work was supported by the Junta de Andalucia, Spain (Poyect PY18-616).

Nanoparticles are potential candidates for numerous biological as well as chemical applications due to their exotic properties 1 - 3. Low lattice energy ions are found in deep eutectic solvents (DES). A quaternary ammonium salt is frequently complexed with a metal salt or hydrogen bond donor to produce these compounds (HBD) 4 - 6. The green synthesis of nanoparticles using DESs is always eco-friendly and attractive. The current study focuses on the synthesis of mercuric sulphide, Zirconium oxide, Manganese oxide and Copper oxide nanoparticles using the Choline Chloride - Ethylene Glycol DES as the solvent in presence of a reducing agent, hydrazine hydrate. The UV-Visible, FTIR spectra, XRD, SEM and EDAX analysis were carried out on these metal nanoparticles. The average sizes of these metal nanoparticles were found to be 50 to 150 nm. Hence the green synthesis of metal nanoparticles using Ch. Cl – EG can be considered as an alternative route in chemical synthesis of metal nanoparticles.

Defects in the perovskite films impose a serious issue on the PCE and stability of the SnO2 based planar perovskite solar cells (SP–PSCs). So far, most researches have focused on regulating the SnO2/perovskite interface to improve performance. However, defect passivation of the perovskite/HTM interface is more significant and potential. Herein, the non-toxic and cheap choline chloride was performed to passivate multiple defects of the MAPbI3/HTM interface in ambient atmosphere. An optimal PCE of 19.93% (the average PCE was 18.60%) was obtained for the passivated device. Furthermore, the effect and mechanism of choline chloride on the humid and thermal stability of the SP-PSCs was investigated in detail. The passivated device without encapsulation retained 91% of its initial efficiency after 20 days in humid environment (20 ± 5 °C, 55 ± 5% RH) and 95% of the initial value under heating for 7 cycles (85 °C). Chloride ions with smaller radius and larger electronegativity formed stronger ionic bonding with Pb2+ to passivate I− vacancy defects, while choline ions passivated MA+ vacancies. This work not only provides guidance for fabrication of an efficient and stable device in air, but also opens an avenue to understanding of relation between stability and defects in the SP-PSCs.

Choline chloride (ChCl) and various monocarboxylic acids (monochloroacetic acid, MCA; dichloroacetic acid, DCA; trichloroacetic acid, TCA) with increasing numbers of substituted chlorine atoms were utilized for the pretreatment of oil palm fronds (OPFs). To the best of our knowledge, this study was the first attempt to utilize these three novel solvents in biomass pretreatment. The result of ChCl:TCA was excluded due to instability in conducting the pretreatment. Under the recommended conditions of 120 °C and 60 min, similar delignification percentages of 75.96% and 74.89% were obtained for ChCl:MCA and ChCl:DCA, respectively. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the pretreated OPFs was demonstrated after pretreatment. By using ChCl:DCA, a shorter duration of enzymatic hydrolysis (24 h) enabled glucan conversion of pretreated OPFs up to 89%. Although a longer duration of 72 h was imposed, glucan conversion of only 82% could be obtained by using ChCl:MCA. Thus, a solvent with a higher number of chlorine atoms (ChCl:DCA) could lead to more effective enzymatic hydrolysis. The results were compared to the literature findings, and ChCl:DCA was determined to be one of the most effective solvents for biomass pretreatment under relatively mild conditions.

Pure deep eutectic solvents (DESs) system of choline chloride (ChCl)/Lactic acid (Lac) were demonstrated to be an effective strategy for extraction of lignin. In this study, two kinds of different promising solid acid (SA) with DESs were designed to promote the pretreatment of lignocellulose. The SA of phosphotungstic acid (H3O40PW12) and iron bromide (FeBr3) were introduced into DESs to extract poplar wood lignin and evaluate the antioxidant activity. It was found that 82.2% and 80.9% of lignin were obtained from poplar wood under H3O40PW12-ChCl/Lac acid and FeBr3-choline ChCl/Lac system with 4 h and 8 h, respectively. The lignin fractions with a high purity (>89%), low molecular weight (Mw 1800–2000 g/mol). Besides, the antioxidant activities of lignin fractions were better than butyl hydroxyanisole (BHA). Therefore, DES lignin has prominent antioxidant activity and could developed a potential natural cosmetics and food packaging.

Zr0.8Sn0.2TiO4 (ZST) ceramics were prepared by choline chloride-malonic acid deep eutectic solvent (Cm-DES) route using analytical-grade raw materials such as Zr(CH3COO)4, SnCl2·2H2O, titanium isopropoxide, and so on. The effects of SnCl2 concentration and Ti source on phase composition, sinterability, and microwave dielectric properties of ZST ceramics processed by Cm-DES routes were investigated. Single-phase ZST powders were processed by Cm-DES routes calcined at 450 °C, and no second phase was detected in all the ceramics. The sintering temperature of ZST ceramics processed by Cm-DES routes was seriously decreased to 1350 °C. Excellent dielectric properties (er = 38.0, Q×f = 44,500 GHz, and τf = 1.9 ppm/°C) were obtained when 0.6 mol/L SnCl2 and titanium isopropanol were employed. These results give the underlying enlightenments needed for cost-saving and low energy consumption fabrication of microwave dielectric ceramics.

Deep eutectic solvent (DES) is a kind of green solvent for biorefinery, which favors the progress of being more environmentally friendly and effective. A better understanding of structural changes of lignin is necessary to optimize pretreatment conditions and efficient utilization of the resultant lignin. The current study reported the structural features of lignin recovered from alkaline ChCl/imidazole and ChCl/urea DES pretreatment, and the mechanism of lignin modification was revealed. The profiling demonstrated that lignin samples possessed a high purity (>94.4%), low molecular weight ranging from 1544 to 2562 g/mol and an excellent uniformity (PDI < 1.6). Noteworthy, the content of β-O-4' linkages in lignin was over 75% (i.e. 72.2%-77.4% retention); S/G ratio was increased whereas the content of -OCH3 groups were decreased. It was revealed that slight cleavage of β-O-4' linkages, preferential breakdown of G units, and demethylation reaction were occurred during alkaline ChCl-based DES pretreatment. Specifically, cleavage of ester linkages between PB and lignin macromolecule was taking place during ChCl/imidazole pretreatment at a high temperature; whereas oxidation only appeared in ChCl/urea system. Despite the modification, well β-O-4' preserved and less condensed lignin samples were recovered after low-temperature pretreatment. Consequently, high contents of phenol derivatives (26.3-30.6%) were achieved in lignin oil. The present study provides critical information on alkaline ChCl-based DES pretreatment, which will contribute to the valorization of lignin by-products and will be beneficial to the development of biorefineries.

Background The influence of deep eutectic solvents (DESs) {(choline chloride (ChCl): lactic acid (LA) and choline chloride: malonic acid (MA)} with different mass fractions of DES on the thermodynamic, transport and electrochemical properties of lithium perchlorate (LiClO4) in propylene carbonate (PC) systems were studied. These investigations are in line with proposing new green electrolyte solutions for future electrochemical applications. Methods Density, speed of sound and viscosity at T = 288.15–318.15 K of (LiClO4 + PC + DESs) solutions have been measured from which the apparent molar volume, apparent molar isentropic compressibility, standard partial molar volume, partial molar isentropic compressibility, partial molar volumes of transfer, partial molar isentropic compressibility of transfer and viscosity B-coefficient were calculated. Also density functional theory (DFT) of LiClO4 with DESs in PC solvent was applied. As well as linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) measurements were performed. Significant findings The calculated thermodynamic and transport parameters indicated that interactions of ChCl/LA with LiClO4 in the presence of PC are more favorable than ChCl/MA. Then, the DFT was applied to find further evidence for these solute-solvent interactions and confirmed the thermodynamic and transport results. Finally, LSV measurements were performed for investigating the electrochemical potential windows of the systems.

Water serves as a key component in the basis of life to function and evolve unceasingly. Excessive deterioration of fresh water resources through discarding enormous amounts of dye effluents is becoming a problem of concern. In this work we report a conventional solid-state technique improved with choline chloride: urea DES medium in 1:2 ratio for synthesizing pure calcium titanate (CTO) and lanthanum doped calcium titanate (LaxCa1-xTiO3; x = 0.0 and 0.5). Both the materials were subjected to photocatalytically degrade reactive dyes RB5, RR198 and RY145. La-doped calcium titanate showed effective degradation efficiency when compared to the pure calcium titanate. On increasing the concentration of the dye, the efficiency of degradation declined gradually. Also, the efficiency was assessed to be greatest for RY145 followed by RR198 and lastly RB5. Efficiency dependence on different pH exposed the enhanced degradation in acidic medium and comparatively lowered pH in basic medium. Recyclability was highly satisfying and promising to validate the real-time applicability of the catalyst.

As one of the most sustainable resources, wood has been widely used in the fields of construction, decoration, flooring and furniture. The emergence of transparent wood further expands the application fields of wood to solar cells, luminescent magnetic switches, artificial electronic skins and stress sensors. However, most of the transparent woods reported are obtained by impregnating resins such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), epoxy resin (EP) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Here, we demonstrated a flexible transparent wood prepared based on a deep eutectic solvent composed of acrylic acid and choline chloride. The light-absorbing chromophore group of natural wood was removed by the sodium chlorite delignification method to obtain the treated wood template, then the deep eutectic solvent was infiltrated into the wood template, and the final transparent wood was obtained by photo-initiated polymerization. This transparent wood has excellent stretchability (maximum tensile strain up to 73.9%), flexibility and tensile resilience. Moreover, this transparent wood also has good electrical conductivity and temperature sensing properties. The electrical signal of transparent wood has very favorable stability and repeatability in multiple heating–cooling cycles, indicating its great potential as a temperature sensor.

The present work is a significant contribution to the production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) from carbohydrates-based feedstocks using environmentally benign choline chloride (ChCl)-based deep eutectic solvents (DESs) as catalyst in the presence of an inexpensive acetone/water solvent system. Under microwave irradiations, the acidity of organic acids in DESs can be a key criterion in screening out different eutectic mixtures. Among others, the ChCl: Lactic acid (LA) mixture was found to be the most efficient DES giving a 5-HMF yield of 30.12% on fructose dehydration. Optimization of different reaction parameters resulted in an enhanced 5-HMF yield of 87.2% in 30 min at 140 °C using ChCl: LA DES. The synergistic effect between LA and ChCl is also highlighted in boosting the 5-HMF yield. As compared to conventional oil bath heating, microwave heating resulted in significantly higher 5-HMF yield at a lower reaction time. The catalytic system ChCl: LA showed an appreciable yield of 5-HMF ranging from 83.1 to 71.2% for 5 recycle runs. Overall, we have developed a low cost, easy, energy-effective, green, and sustainable process ensuring high 5-HMF production.

High-purity Cu powders (99.967%) can be obtained by the electrorefining of Cu-Ni alloy (Ni ≤ 5%) in choline chloride-ethylene glycol deep eutectic solvent (ChCl-EG DES) at near room temperature. The electrochemical separation behaviors of Cu and Ni have been investigated by linear sweep voltammetry in 0.1 M CuCl + ChCl-EG DES. The results show that the oxidation potential of Cu is more positive than that of Ni, which implies Cu and Ni can be separated by electrochemistry. And the increasing of temperature is beneficial to the decontamination of Ni from Cu-Ni alloy. Besides, the effects of current density (2–10 mA·cm−2) and reaction temperature (323–363 K) on the current efficiency and specific energy consumption during the electrorefining process are also analyzed, respectively. The highest current efficiency (99.89%) and the corresponding specific energy consumption (281.492 kW·h·t−1) can be achieved at 10 mA·cm−2 and 363 K. The morphologies of Cu powders change from cauliflower-like to wheat ear-like with the increasing of current density. This finding provides a theoretical guidance for the separation of Ni from Cu-Ni alloy by an eco-friendly and facile electrorefining in ChCl-EG DES.

The use of deep eutectic solvents (DES) with buffer as cosolvent (up to 10 % v/v) leads to low-viscous media in which lipases can perform synthetic reactions, instead of hydrolysis. This paper explores the immobilization of Pseudomonas stutzeri lipase (TL) in cross-linking aggregates (CLEA) to deliver robust derivatives that are active in media like choline chloride – glycerol DES with buffer as cosolvent. While the free TL enzyme was markedly inactive in these media, TL-CLEA derivatives perform esterifications and can be reused several times. Overall, results are consistent with previous experiments reported for other lipases in these DES-water media and confirm that CLEA immobilization turns out a very useful and straightforward alternative for generating active (bio)catalysts for DES-aqueous media systems. Immobilized systems open the possibility of performing continuous processes in low-viscous DES-buffer media.

Deep eutectic solvents (DES), a new class of alternative solvents, have recently been used in the pre-treatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Due to the ability to dissolve phenolic compounds, they have been efficiently applied as delignification agents. However, to extend DES application to bioprocesses, such as Anaerobic Digestion (AD), their toxicity to microbial consortia must be evaluated. In this work, an effective delignifying DES, composed of choline chloride (ChCl) and oxalic acid (OA) (1:1) was prepared and its effect evaluated, for the first time, in biogas production. Results show that the presence of DES had both beneficial and detrimental effects on the anaerobic consortium, depending on its concentration. In the concentration range of 0.3–12.5 g/L, the presence of DES led to a lag-phase of 1 to 8 d as the DES concentration increased. However, after the lag-phase has been surpassed, DES up to a concentration of 12.5 g/L improved the biogas production, reaching an accumulated biogas volume three times higher than the control assay for the concentration of 12.5 g/L. For the highest DES concentrations (19.8–78.1 g/L), the biogas production was inhibited. The assays performed with DES components alone have indicated that OA at 3.2 g/L was the main responsible for the inhibition of biogas production (50% less biogas produced than the control). ChCl at 4.9 g/L has not presented a lag-phase and produced an accumulated biogas volume like the control assay (1200 mL for 30 d incubation). This work points out that ChCl:OA DES may be used in the delignification of biomass further submitted to AD, provided the inhibitory concentrations of OA are not achieved.

A low-cost and green biorefinery will increase the economy and revenue from lignocellulosic biomass. This study demonstrated the effect of two-pot sequential pretreatment, comprising of ultrasound ethanol (USEL) synergized ternary deep eutectic solvent (TDES, choline chloride: glycerol: FeCl3·6H2O), with the aim to investigate the effects of USEL, TDES, and USEL + TDES pretreatments on enhancing delignification of sugarcane bagasse (SCB). The results showed that under the optimum TDES pretreatment conditions (FeCl3·6H2O, 120 °C, 3 h), the cellulose content and lignin removal rate (LRR) of SCB reached 47.67 and 82.71%, respectively. Under the optimum synergy conditions (USEL conditions: 100% ethanol, 20 + 28 + 40 kHz, 240 W, 60 min; TDES conditions: FeCl3·6H2O, 120 °C, 3 h), the cellulose content and LRR of SCB reached 66.17 and 86.39%, respectively. After enzymatic hydrolysis, the SCB pretreated with USEL + TDES shows a saccharification rate of 90.31%, which was substantially higher than that of the SCB pretreated with TDES alone (85.68%). X-ray diffraction, particle size, brunauer-emmet-teller, scanning electron microscopy, and optical microscopy analyses were conducted to confirm the efficiency of USEL + TDES on pretreating SCB. Meanwhile, 2D-HSQC NMR analysis revealed that regenerated lignin exhibited well-preserved structures (β-O-4, β-β linkages), making it suitable for depolymerization into monoaromatic compounds. Overall, this work demonstrated that biomass pretreatment with the USEL + TDES was promising for a low-cost biorefinery to efficiently fractionate lignocellulosic biomass into glucose and high-quality lignin with tailored chemical structures.

The present study investigates deep eutectic solvents (DESs) as potential media for enzymatic hydrolysis. A series of ternary ammonium and phosphonium-based DESs were prepared at different molar ratios by mixing with aqueous glycerol (85%). The physicochemical properties including surface tension, conductivity, density, and viscosity were measured at a temperature range of 298.15 K – 363.15 K. The eutectic points were highly influenced by the variation of temperature. The eutectic point of the choline chloride: glycerol: water (ratio of 1: 2.55: 2.28) and methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide:glycerol:water (ratio of 1: 4.25: 3.75) is 213.4 K and 255.8 K, respectively. The stability of the lipase enzyme isolated from porcine pancreas (PPL) and Rhizopus niveus (RNL) toward hydrolysis in ternary DESs medium was investigated. The PPL showed higher activity compared to the RNL in DESs. Molecular docking simulation of the selected DES with the substrate (p-nitrophenyl palmitate) toward PPL was also reported. It is worth noting that ternary DES systems would be viable lipase activators in hydrolysis reactions.

Ternary deep eutectic solvents (TDESs) comprising choline chloride (ChCl), glycerol and l -arginine were synthesized as catalysts and solvents for the conversion of d -glucosamine (GlcNH2) into deoxyfructosazine (DOF). The interactions between these three components in the prepared TDESs were studied by 1H-, 35Cl-NMR spectra and 1H diffusion-ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) measurements. The chemical shift changes of active hydrogen in the 1H-NMR spectra of TDES system and widening of signals in the 35Cl-NMR spectra confirmed the hydrogen bonding interaction between the components, which was further supported by the decrease of diffusion coefficients (D) of the TDES components according to 1H DOSY measurements. The influences of reaction temperature and l -arginine content in the TDESs on the yield of DOF were also studied. The experimental results have shown that when the molar ratio of ChCl, glycerol, and l -arginine was 1:2:0.1, DOF was the major product with a yield of 22.6% at 90 °C for 120 min. The chemical shift titration indicated that the carboxyl group of l -arginine in the TDES is the catalytical active site, so the mechanism of the catalytic reaction between GlcNH2 and the TDES was proposed. Moreover, a reaction intermediate, dihydrofructosazine, was identified in the self-condensation reaction of GlcNH2 by an in situ 1H NMR technique.

Over the past decade, natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) have become promising green solvent from both environmental and technological perspectives. The number of structural combinations encompassed by NADES is tremendous; thus, NADES with unique physicochemical properties can be designed for a particular purpose, such as for efficient biocatalytic processes. The aim of this work was to prepare several NADES based on renewable sources (biomass energy) and to apply these solvents in the industrially interesting process of lipase-catalysed (R)-1-phenylethanol synthesis. Based on experimental data on lipase behaviour in the tested NADES, choline chloride:glycerol (ChGly) was selected as the most promising solvent for the given reaction. The resulting (R)-1-phenylethanol was also successfully isolated and purified from the reaction mixture using liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate, whilst ChGly was recycled and reused. (R)-1-phenylethanol and unreacted (S)-1-phenylethyl acetate were purified on silica gel columns with yields of 81.91 %. The biocatalyst was also successfully recycled and reused in 4 cycles. Based on laboratory-scale optimum conditions, (R)-1-phenylethanol synthesis performed in a 500 mL batch reactor achieved reaction conversions comparable to those obtained with millilitre-scale biocatalytic reactions. The downstream process was also performed on a preparative scale with a yield of 49.48 %.

Fluoroquinolone antibiotics are widely used in human and veterinary medicine. However, untreated fluoroquinolone seriously threatens the ecosystem and human health. In this study, deep eutectic solvents (DESs) were applied for the hydrolysis of waste feathers, and the keratin particles (KPs) in a low-cost teabag were utilized to adsorb fluoroquinolone norfloxacin. Results showed that choline chloride/ethylene glycol DES rapidly hydrolyzed feathers within 10 min, and the undissolved particles effectively adsorbed norfloxacin. Adding KOH markedly shortened the hydrolysis time (6 min) and increased the adsorption ability of KPs. The optimum hydrolysis conditions were DES ratio of 1 g: 4.67 g, KOH of 35.68 g L−1, and temperature of 90 °C. When KPDES+KOH of 2 g L−1, norfloxacin of 25 mg L−1, and pH0 7 were used, 94% of norfloxacin was removed in 60 min. A low-cost teabag effectively separated the KPs from the solution after adsorption and did not decrease the adsorption ability of the KPs. The Langmuir isotherm model well described the adsorption behavior of KPsDES+KOH (qmax = 79.36 mg g−1, R2 = 0.9972). In addition, acetone efficiently regenerated the exhausted KPsDES+KOH. The KPs maintained >80% of its adsorption ability after seven cycles of regeneration.

Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NADESs) have attracted growing interest in the scientific community as an alternative to conventional organic solvents and are exclusively made up of naturally occurring non-toxic, environment friendly compounds. In the present study, NADESs based on choline chloride and carboxylic acids are presented as new and green extraction media for glycyrrhizic acid (GA) extraction from Glycyrrhiza glabra. Initial solvent screening indicated that the highest extraction yield was achieved using choline chloride-lactic acid mixture at mole ratio 1:1. Various extraction conditions were optimized, such as 30 % water in choline chloride:lactic acid NADES, liquid/solid ratio 40:1 (v/w, mL/g), temperature 40℃, agitation speed 400 rpm, and extraction time 30 min yielding 53.72 ± 0.57 mg/g GA. The NADES extraction method successfully provided enhanced yield and improved in-vitro anti-inflammatory activity, which was assessed using human red blood cell membrane stabilization method. In addition, it was found to be energy efficient and economical compared to conventional extraction techniques. SEM was performed to study the surface morphology of Glycyrrhiza glabra powder before and after extraction. Also, FTIR was used to provide information about hydrogen bonding in NADES. The results presented valuable information towards NADES implementation for designing of extraction process for bioactive compounds.

Furfural is an alternative feedstock and has been used for the production of maleic acid (MA) and fumaric acid (FA) by an oxidation process. Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) were used as the green solvents while sodium chlorate was used as an oxidant and vanadium pentoxide was used as the catalyst at 70–90 ℃ under atmospheric pressure. It was found that several acidic DESs are valid, such as acetic acid/choline chloride (AA/ChCl) and propionic acid/choline chloride (PA/ChCl), and AA/ChCl DES was selected as the solvent for the conversion. The optimal DES is AA/ChCl, and the effect of the amount of oxidant, time, and temperature on the yield of the MA and FA has been systematically studied, and the conversion of furfural can reach 100% while the yield of the MA and FA reached 66.5% under reaction temperature of 80 ℃ for 12 h, which provides a new green route to synthesis valuable monomers from furfural.

Hypothesis The self-assembly of ionic surfactants in deep eutectic solvents has recently been demonstrated, opening up new possibilities in terms of the development of formulated products and templating of nanostructured materials. As it occurs in an aqueous environment, the solvophobic effect drives the formation of micelles in these solvents and specific-ion interactions alter the resulting structures. We hypothesized that the presence of hydrotropic salts would greatly affect the micellar structure in deep eutectic solvents, ultimately leading to the formation of worm-like aggregates. Experiments A systematic investigation performed on hydrotrope-surfactant assemblies in neat and hydrated 1:2 choline chloride:glycerol is presented. The effect of choline salicylate on the micellization of hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride at different hydrotrope-to-surfactant ratios was probed by contrast variation small-angle neutron scattering. Findings Here the first investigation on salt-induced micellar growth in deep eutectic solvents is presented. The microscopic characterization of the system shows that the micelle-hydrotrope interaction in pure and hydrated deep eutectic solvents results in a significant increase in micelle elongation. The condensation of the hydrotrope on the micelle, which alters the effective monomer packing, leads to the formation of worm-like micelles with tunable morphology and flexibility. The results presented here present new possibilities in terms of self-assembly and co-assembly in neoteric solvents, where micelle morphology can be controlled through surfactant-salt interactions.

In this work, twenty-five kinds of choline chloride (ChCl)-based deep eutectic solvents (DESs) containing acid, hydroxyl, amide, and binary hydrogen bond donors (HBDs) were prepared and successfully used to pretreat pine wood powder. As a result of the pretreatment, the glucan content in the pretreated biomass was increased, whereas the contents of hemicellulose and lignin were significantly decreased. The biomass pretreatment efficiency of the DESs had improved with increasing the polarity and hydrogen bond acidity (α) of the DESs. Among the studied DESs, ChCl:lactic acid:formic acid (1:1:1) with the highest α value was the most efficient DES in extracting lignin from biomass. The pretreated biomass also showed an enhanced enzymatic saccharification yield owing to the decreased particle size of the biomass and reduced content of hemicellulose and lignin. During the pretreatment process of biomass using DESs, the extracted lignin could be recovered successfully, with a yield of up to 60% and purity of over 90%. The molecular weight of the extracted lignin was much lower than that of the native cellulolytic enzyme lignin. The DES used for pretreatment process could be also successfully reused with high recovery yield of DES and high retention of delignification capacity.

In recent years, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) as an important intermediate in the production of added-value chemical products have been produced from the hydrolysis of carbohydrates in the new generation of green solvents named as deep eutectic solvents (DESs). In order to development, design, and optimization of the synthesis and extraction processes containing 5-HMF, the thermodynamic properties play an important role. In this work, some of the thermodynamic properties of 5-HMF in the aqueous solutions of the DES, choline chloride (ChCl) - citric acid and choline chloride – malonic acid, were investigated. The densities, viscosities, speeds of sound, and refractive indices for the systems containing 5-HMF in water and aqueous solutions of DES have been measured at T = (288.15 to 318.15) K. The data have been used to calculate the standard partial molar volumes V φ 0 , partial molar isentropic compressibility Kϕ0, viscosity B-coefficients and molar refractions RD. The results have been interpreted in terms of solute-solvent interactions that these interactions were increased with increasing the concentration of DES. The transfervolumes Δ t r V φ 0 show that dominant interactions between 5-HMF and DESs are ion-polar and polar-polar interactions.

Titanomagnetite is widely distributed in nature, and has potentials in environmental remediation. Nanometric titanomagnetite particles were usually prepared via soft chemistry routes in aqueous solutions. Herein a novel soft chemistry route carried out in a deep eutectic solvent (DES) comprising choline chloride and urea in a molar ratio of 1:2 was successfully developed to make titanomagnetite nanoparticles (Fe2.5Ti0.5O4-DES, ~30 nm). The chemical composition analyzed by different methods revealed that Fe2.5Ti0.5O4-DES nanoparticles possess the Ti-rich core and Fe-rich shell. The Fe2.5Ti0.5O4-DES nanoparticles exhibited enhanced activities in catalytic decomposition of H2O2 and oxidative degradation of organic contaminants at circumneutral pH values and room temperature, which was mainly attributed to the increased content of ferrous (Fe2+) ions upon substitution of Ti4+ for ferric (Fe3+) ions in spinel structure of magnetite.

MXene is a rising star of two-dimensional (2D) materials for energy relative applications, however, the traditional synthesis of MXene etched by hazard HF acid or LiF+HCl mixed solution is highly dangerous with the risk of splashing or pouring liquid solutions. In this work, we developed a water-free ionothermal synthesis of 2D Ti3C2 MXene via etching pristine Ti3AlC2 MAX in low-cost choline chloride and oxalic acid based deep eutectic solvents (DES) with the presence of NH4F, thus it was highly safe and convenient to operate solid precursor and product materials at room temperature. Benefited from the low vapor pressure and solvating properties of DES, the prepared Ti3C2 (denoted as DES-Ti3C2) possessed a high purity up to 98% compared with 95% for HF etched Ti3C2 (denoted as HF-Ti3C2). Notably, an expanded interlayer spacing of 1.35 nm could be achieved due to the intercalation of choline cations in DES-Ti3C2, larger than that of HF-Ti3C2 (0.98 nm). As a result, the DES-Ti3C2 anodes exhibited enhanced lithium storage performance, such as high reversible capacity of 208 mAh g−1 at 0.5 A g−1, and long cycle life over 400 times, outperforming most reported pure MXene anodes. The ionothermal synthesis of MXene developed here may pave a new way to safely prepare other MXene for various energy relating applications.

It is important to develop efficient and economically feasible pretreatment methods for lignocellulosic biomass, to increase annual biomass production. A number of pretreatment methods were introduced to promote subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass for green energy processes. Pretreatment with steam explosion removes the only xylan at high severity but increases lignin content. In this study, corn stover soaked in choline chloride solution before the steam explosion is economically feasible as it reduced cost. Enzymatic hydrolysis of de-lignified corn stover is enhanced by combinatorial pretreatments of steam explosion and choline chloride. Corn stover pretreated with choline chloride at the ratio of 1:2.2 (w/w), 1.0 MPa, 184 °C, for 15 min efficiently expelled 84.7% lignin and 78.9% xylan. The residual solid comprised of 74.59% glucan and 7.51% xylan was changed to 84.2% glucose and 78.3% xylose with enzyme stacking of 10FPU/g. This single-step pretreatment had ∼ 4.5 and 6.4 times higher glucose yield than SE-pretreated and untreated corn stover, respectively. Furthermore, SEM, XRD and FTIR indicated the porosity, crystalline changes, methoxy bond-cleavage respectively due to the lignin and hemicellulose expulsion. Thus, the released acetic acid during this process introduced this novel strategy, which significantly builds the viability of biomass in short pretreatment time.

The production of ethyl levulinate has been investigated by levulinic acid esterification with ethanol in the presence of deep eutectic solvents. Deep eutectic solvents are environmentally friendly materials that can be easily synthesized by mixing hydrogen bond donor and acceptor. in this study, six different choline chloride based deep eutectic solvents were synthesized. Due to the requirement of esterification reaction, carboxylic acids were selected as hydrogen bond donor to gain acidic nature. Reactions were carried out in a batch reactor at various operating conditions. the most catalytically active catalyst was found to be DES formed by choline chloride and para-toluene sulfonic acid. the maximum conversion of levulinic acid was achieved as 99.8% at 353 K for 1 h in the presence of 5 wt% of catalyst. the highest selectivity of ethyl levulinate was achieved as 99.9% at 353 K, catalyst loading of 5 wt% and ethanol/ levulinic acid molar ratio of 1. (C) 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The hypersensitive detection of metal ions and amino acid becomes more important for environmental and human physical conditions monitor but remains still a great challenge. In this work, we have reported a green and straight forward procedure (solvothermal treatment) for the synthesis of N-doped hemicellulose-based carbon quantum dots (N-H-CQDs) used as an “off-on” fluorescence sensor for ultrasensitive detecting Ag+ ion and L-Cysteine (L-Cys). During this process, hemicellulose used as carbon source and nitrogen-rich deep eutectic solvent (DES) of choline chloride/urea acted as both solvent and doping agent. The prepared N-H-CQDs displayed narrow diameter ranging from 2 to 8 nm with relatively higher quantum yield (QY) of 23.45%. This probe was able to selectively detect Ag+ ion on account of the formation of N-H-CQDs- Ag+ complex and possessed extremely low detection limit of 21 nM. Additionally, the fluorescence of N-H-CQDs-Ag+ complex was restored by the addition of L-Cysteine as Ag+ ion would assemble a more stable Ag+-L-Cysteine complex through Ag+-thiol bonds. Accordingly, the N-H-CQDs-Ag+ solution behaved as secondary fluorescent probe to detect L-Cys in the dynamic range of 0–100 μM with a LOD of 242 nM. The prepared N-H-CQDs are promising probes for hypersensitive detection of Ag+ and L-Cys.

Acanthopanax senticosus is an important medicinal and edible homologous plant that is widely used in medicines, health products, and functional beverages. Phytochemicals present in plants are partly responsible for various health benefits. Traditional extraction methods use a large number of high-risk organic solvents (acetone, chloroform, etc.) that are potential threats to the environment, human health, and food safety. However, a persistent problem remains in this field with regards to extraction using a simple "green" method. Therefore, a deep eutectic solvent (DES) was used instead of traditional high-risk organic solvents to extract the phytochemicals from Acanthopanax senticosus root. In this study, DES was synthesized from choline chloride and lactic acid, which was used as a substitute for a strong organic solvent to extract saponins, phenylpropionic acid, and terpenoids from Acanthopanax senticosus root. The phytochemicals extracted from Acanthopanax senticosus were analyzed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole orbitrap mass spectrometry in positive and negative ionization modes. A total of 91 types of phytochemicals were identified from DES extracts and 17 chemical constituents were newly identified in the root of Acanthopanax senticosus via primary and secondary high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS1/MS2). Furthermore, DES was demonstrated as a promising functional component of the extraction solvent, and its non-toxic properties endow broad application prospects in the food and health products industries.

In this study, we have established a green and efficient preparation method of quercetin. Rutin was first extracted from Sophora japonica using natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs), then hydrolyzed into quercetin by rutin degrading enzyme (RDE) obtained from germinated tartary buckwheat in situ. Rutin solubility tests showed that most of the 11 NADESs increased the solubility of rutin by 67-3116 times compared to water. Thus, NADESs could be prior candidate to extract rutin. Extraction efficiency of rutin varied with different NADESs, and a maximum of 291.57 mg g−1 was achieved in NADES ChGly, which was prepared by mixing choline chloride and glycerol at a molar ratio of 1:1. After that hydrolysis was performed directly in extraction system by adding RDE with degradation rate of up to 8.36 mg min-1·L-1. Our findings suggest that preparation of quercetin using NADESs was simple and feasible to operate, environmentally friendly, efficient, and inspired the preparation method of bioactive components from a new perspective.

A benign separation of sulfur-containing compounds (SCC) from fuel oil is crucial to produce ultra-low sulfur fuels for a cleaner environment. To achieve this, extractive desulfurization could be implemented with deep-eutectic solvent (DES) as extractor. 2 DES were synthesized from choline chloride and dihydric alcohols, which were 1, 2-ethanediol and 1, 4-butanediol. It was found that shorther alkyl chain DES has higher density and low viscosity compared to longer alkyl chain DES. Freezing point depression to form melt compound at room temperature was observed for both DES. In optimized conditions, ethanediol produce higher desulfurization efficiency (60.27%), suggesting a new opportunity for DES to be used in alternative desulfurization technology.

An efficient one pot synthesis of 2,6-bis(2/4-hydroxyphenyl)piperidin-4-one have been studied by employing a greener, glucose-urea deep eutectic solvent (DES) as a reaction medium. Usually choline chloride-based DESs are used as a solvent for organic synthesis. In this work, some 2,6-bis(2/4-hydroxyphenyl)piperidin-4-one derivatives were produced using a real greener solvent of glucose-urea DES. Glucose-urea DES does not leave any harmful organic pollutants to the environment during synthesis and hence considered to be a real green solvent. Piperidin-4-one derivatives have found more applications in pharmacological field. Here we report the greener method for the synthesis of 2,6-bis(2/4-hydroxyphenyl) piperidin-4-one derivatives, starting from 2 and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde with different ketones such as 2-propanone, 2-butanone, 2-pentanone and 3-pentanone in presence of ammonia. All the five compounds (a – e) as given in Scheme 1 synthesised by this method were characterised by FT- IR, 1HNMR and 13CNMR spectral methods. The yields of the products were found to be better as compared to other methods available in the literature. The melting points of the compounds were also determined. Thus, the use of glucose-urea DES as a reaction medium provides advantages in terms of simple synthetic procedure and as well as yields are obtained with good atom economy.

Knowledge of solid–liquid equilibria (SLE) and vapor–liquid equilibria (VLE) for mixtures containing deep eutectic solvents (DESs) is of paramount importance. We have conducted experiments to obtain additional data for SLE systems and then used the e-NRTL model to predict the VLE behavior in mixtures of DESs comprised of choline chloride (ChCl), sorbitol (S), and water (W). The systems under investigation include three 2-component systems (S/W, ChCl/W, ChCl/S), and one 3-component system (DES/W) where the DES is obtained by mixing ChCl and S at a molar ratio of 1. Using the e-NRTL activity coefficient model, the adjusted binary interaction parameters of the proposed model are determined solely from the experimental SLE data obtained from this work and also those in the literature. There is an excellent agreement between the SLE solubility data and the e-NRTL results. The tuned model is then used to predict the bubble pressure in three aqueous systems (S/W, ChCl/W, and DES/W) with an overall AARD value of 2.21%. The excellent agreement between the experimental and predicted VLE data demonstrates the viability of the proposed thermodynamic modelling framework to represent the equilibrium systems containing DESs. The outcome from our study can be used to relate the SLE and VLE data without the need to perform experiments for both cases for the given system of interest. Compared to the VLE experiments, the SLE tests are much simpler and safer because there is little compressibility and the effect of pressure on solubility is minimal which makes it possible to conduct SLE tests at room conditions (at least for liquids with negligible non-ideality). Therefore, conducting the high-pressure VLE calculations without the need to perform VLE experiments and through SLE experimental data alone will be of practical significance. Publishers version

Antimony powders with different morphologies have been prepared by electrodeposition at 313–353 K and 10–50 mA·cm−2 in 0.1 mol·L−1 SbCl3 + ChCl-EG solution. The electrochemical behavior of Sb(III) on titanium electrode are studied by cyclic voltammetry. Results show that the electrochemical reduction of Sb(III) in SbCl3 + ChCl-EG solution is a quasi-reversible process via a one-step reaction and the apparent activation energy is 50.723 kJ·mol−1. The effects of current density and temperature on current efficiency and specific energy consumption are also investigated. The current efficiency increases with the increasing of current density and temperature. The specific energy consumption increased with the increase of current density, while decreased with the raising of temperature. When the current density is 40 mA·cm−2 at 353 K, the current efficiency and specific energy consumption are up to 97.89% and 1251.277 kW·h·t−1, respectively. The morphology and phase of the products are analyzed by FESEM and XRD. It demonstrates that the deposition products are pure antimony powders and their preferred crystal plane is (0 1 2). The pineal, wheat grain, badminton, dendritic, and cluster-like antimony powders can be prepared by controlling electrodeposition parameters. The particles size range of antimony powders are 0.21–261.05 μm.

Solubility of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in a new class of solvents, i.e., deep eutectic solvents (DESs) namely, tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB)/carboxylic acid and Choline chloride (ChCl)/carboxylic acid, was determined at 298–318 K and 0.10–0.60 MPa. The molar ratio of hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) to hydrogen bond donor (HBD) was taken in the range from 1:1 to 1:4. Some important operating parameters affecting the H2S absorption were investigated, such as, concentration of carboxylic acid, temperature and pressure. It was observed that the solubility of H2S in the DESs increased with decreasing concentration of carboxylic acid, Moreover, it increased almost linearly with the increasing pressure (0.10–0.60 MPa) and decreased with the increasing temperature. The solubility of H2S in the DESs TBAB/Pro with the molar ratio of 1:1 was as high as 3.81 mol of H2S/ kg of DES at 298 K and 0.50 MPa. Compared with other solvents (e.g., ionic liquids), presently used DESs exhibited almost the same capacity for H2S, moreover, after their regeneration and recycling, no any remarkable change in H2S absorption capacity was found. Desirably, such DESs present high absorption selectivity for H2S over other gases such as CH4, CO and H2, which indicates them as potential absorption solvents for removing H2S selectively from natural gas as well as gas streams originating from coal gasification process.

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are a kind of potential lixiviant for selective metal processing due to their versatile complexation properties. In this study, we investigated the recovery of zinc from zinc oxide dust using choline chloride−urea− ethylene glycol (ChCl−urea−EG) DESs. The zinc extraction efficiency can be up to 85.2% when the slurry concentration is 50 g/L, leaching temperature is 80 °C and stirring speed is 600 r/min. The leaching process is controlled by the diffusion and the corresponding activation energy is 32.1 kJ/mol. The resultant solution was directly used for the electrodeposition of zinc. The pure zinc deposit is obtained with a current efficiency of 82.6%. Furthermore, the ChCl−urea−EG DESs can be recycled. This approach is shown to be promising for the recycling of zinc from the zinc-containing dust.

SUMMARY Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome (FLHS) is a metabolic disorder in egg laying hens characterized by liver hemorrhages, and increased hepatic lipid accumulation. Based on our previous research on hepatic lipid-lowering effect of dietary flaxseed in egg laying hens, the current study examined the ability of flaxseed-based diets with supplementary choline to attenuate FLHS pathology. In addition, hepatic phospholipid composition, fatty acid profile, and antioxidant status were also assessed. A total of 24 (Lohmann Brown) laying hens (n = 24) (40 wk old) were kept individually in cages and were fed 1 of the 2 corn-soybean meal-based diets containing 15 g/100 g flaxseed (Flax) or Flax +0.15 g/100 g choline chloride (Flax+Cho) for a period of 140 d. Histopathology revealed an increase in hepatocytes vacuolization in Flax+Cho hens. Statistical analysis of total pathological scores in liver indicated that Flax+Cho perpetuated fatty liver pathology (P 0.05). In conclusion, dietary choline enhanced antioxidant status while reducing total lipid and PC content in the hepatic tissue of hens fed flaxseed. Supplementing choline in flaxseed-based diets reduced oxidative stress in hens fed flaxseed. Choline supplementation was not effective in attenuating FLHS pathology in hens fed flaxseed.

The use of deep eutectic solvents (DESs) in the lipase-catalysed esterification of lactic acid with ethanol was explored by screening several DESs. Choline chloride:glycerol (1:2) was the most effective DES and provided 28.7% yield of ethyl lactate under the following conditions: 10% (v/v) of water content in DES, 3 M of initial lactic acid concentration, 5 M of initial ethanol concentration, 30 mg/mL of enzyme concentration, 50 °C temperature and 200 rpm agitation rate. Individual and combined effects of the reaction medium components on the enzyme activity were investigated and it was discovered that DES stimulated the enzyme activity while reactants inhibited it. A kinetic model that obeys the Ping-Pong Bi-Bi mechanism with ethanol inhibition was suggested. The kinetics parameters were determined as rmax=0.401 mol/L h, the Michaelis constants KA = 1.657 mol/L and KB = 0.799 mol /L, the inhibition constant KiB=0.156 mol/L. The model reasonably predicted the experimental data. The activation energy was found to be 43.28 kJ/mol. Mass transfer limitations in the reaction medium were negligible. The results are promising for further studies that will research on the use of green solvents in enzyme-catalysed lactic acid esterification reactions.

A straightforward, eco-friendly and energy proficient method has been established for the chemoselective acylation and formylation reactions of amines using inexpensive and biodegradable choline chloride in an aqueous medium via concentrated solar radiations (CSR) and traditional heating method. When compared with conventional methods, the CSR method is found to be superior in terms of reaction time and total energy requirements (88–92% energy is saved). This protocol is amine-selective and can tolerate other functional groups and is also applicable for gram scale synthesis. The noted features of this method include metal and oxidant free green approach, use of innocuous reagents, remarkable yields, broad substrate scope, reuse of catalyst and solvent and use of renewable source of energy.

Room ionic liquids (ILs) used as green solvents have received considerable attention and wide application in different research and industrial fields, such as chemistry, biology, catalysis, energy, and even environmental sciences. Recently, a new class of sustainable solvents named deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have been developed, which share the promising solvent characteristics of ILs, such as thermal and chemical stability, low vapor pressure and design ability. In addition, the major advantages of DESs over ILs are their lower prices and easier preparation. Therefore, DESs have been considered to be a potential alternative to replace conventional organic solvents and ILs. Currently, the developed DESs may be classified into ionic and nonionic liquids. Typically, choline chloride (ChCl)/urea (1:2) is an ionic DES, while glucose/sucrose (1:1) is a nonionic DES. Although several reviews have covered advancements in DESs, in this review, we aim to provide a general insight into DESs, particularly ionic DESs, like choline-based DES, in terms of their preparation and application in the extraction of natural products (NPs) mainly from traditional Chinese medicines and the recovery of extracted compounds from their extracts. Additionally, various factors affecting the extraction efficiency of DESs are discussed.

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have gained much attention especially in the fields of catalysis, electrochemistry, material chemistry owing to their low cost, good stability, environmental friendly features. The low vapor, less volatile and wide liquid range properties of DESs inspired us to study their application in the field of heat transfer, especially adopted as a base solvent of nanofluids. In this work, glycerol/choline chloride (ChCl) deep eutectic solvent based nanofluids, by filling with nanoscale TiO2, Al2O3 and graphene oxide were demonstrated. Thermal conductivities of the developed nanofluids can be increased by 3–11.4%, and the working temperatures cover from −35 to 275 °C with keeping liquid state. The temperature-dependent viscosities were studied and a little dependence on nanofiller concentration was found in those three different nanofluids. Specific heat capacities of the developed nanofluids were found to be decreased compared with that of base solvent after dispersing nanoparticles. Interestingly, we found that the Al2O3-filled nanofluid exhibited a unique behavior of thermal conductivity by varying the volume fraction of Al2O3. 1H NMR and FT-IR were chosen to study the mechanism of thermal enhancement, which indicated that the hydrogen bond between glycerol and Al2O3 is responsible for this unique phenomenon of heat transfer enhancement.

Four-channel hollow fiber supported CHA zeolite membranes with relatively higher Si/Al ratios (3.6–3.9) were successfully synthesized using cheap choline chloride (CC) as structure directing agent. The influence of synthesis parameters, such as precursor composition, crystallization temperature and duration, on the composition and dehydration performance of CHA zeolite membranes was extensively investigated. TG, EDX and FT-IR results indicated that the template decomposed during membrane synthesis which generated some residue in CHA framework. Interestingly, no thermal treatment was necessary to open water permeating channels of the as-prepared CHA zeolite membranes. The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio and CC content in the precursor significantly affected the separation performance. High-quality CHA zeolite membranes with the Si/Al ratio between 3.6 and 3.9 was prepared from precursor 28 SiO2: 0.58 Al2O3: 4.7–5.7 CC: 11.78 Na2O: 1260 H2O at 413 K for 10 h. The as-synthesized membranes showed water permeation flux of 4.7–5.6 kg m−2 h−1 and separation factor of >2000 for pervaporation (PV) dehydration of 90 wt% ethanol/water mixture at 348 K. Moreover, the membrane showed long-term (>35 h) stability for the acetic acid dehydration.

Although deep eutectic solvents (DES) and ethylene glycol (EG) electrolytes are gaining ground as media for the electrodeposition of metals, the influence of these electrolytes on the electrode and electrodeposits has not been elaborated before. In this work, we investigate how choline chloride: ethylene glycol based (ChCl:EG) electrolytes interact with the glassy carbon (GC) working surface at different potentials and, how these interactions change during the electrodeposition of iron from 1:2 and 1:4 ChCl:EG electrolytes. GC substrates are exposed to both electrolytes in absence of iron in order to study the pure electrolyte-substrate interactions. Linear sweep voltammetry was used to determine the potential range in which the different reactions occur, while time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) was used to detect and identify the molecules adsorbed on the surface. In all systems, there is an accumulation of either choline or its derivatives on the electrode surface, with 1:4 ChCl:EG electrolytes showing different decomposition products from 1:2 ChCl:EG electrolytes. Choline accumulation and decomposition was also found on iron electrodeposits. The electrolyte composition has a major impact on the chemical speciation of iron, and on the deposit's adherence to the substrate. These are two crucial characteristics that define the efficiency of iron deposition from DES.

The present study was conducted to determine the digestible choline requirement of juvenile yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi; YTK) in the presence of 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP), an inhibitor of choline biosynthesis. The second aim of this study was to determine if choline supplementation of a practical diet made from common raw materials can improve the growth performance of YTK and if choline supplementation dosages are affected by water temperature. Two eight-week experiments were conducted. The first was a dose-response experiment in which juvenile YTK (156.3 ± 15.3 g) were reared at 16 °C and fed five isonitrogenous and isoenergetic semi-purified diets containing 0.42 (Diet 1), 1.10 (Diet 2), 1.37 (Diet 3), 2.96 (Diet 4) or 6.05 g digestible choline kg−1 diet (Diet 5) by adding graded concentrations of choline chloride (CC). A sixth diet (Diet 6), comparable to Diet 4, was made without AMP to estimate the de novo synthesis of choline by YTK. The second was a factorial experiment in which juvenile YTK (157.3 ± 11.9 g) were reared at 16 °C and 24 °C and fed a practical diet supplemented with 0.0, 3.0 or 6.0 g of CC kg−1 which equates to a digestible choline concentration of 1.77, 3.54 and 4.66 g kg−1 diet, respectively. Results from experiment 1 indicated the breakpoint (broken-line regression model) in specific growth rate (SGR) and choline deposition rate occurred when digestible choline intake reached 26.1 mg kgBW−1 d−1 and 27.3 mg kgBW−1 d−1, respectively. On a dietary basis, the breakpoint in SGR and choline deposition rate occurred when diets provided 1.93 and 1.94 g digestible choline kg−1 diet, respectively. Experiment 2 results indicated there were no significant interactions between dietary choline and water temperature with respect to production indices such as SGR, food conversion ratio (FCR), whole body composition and nutrient retention. Choline deposition rate, SGR and FCR tended to be better in fish fed the practical diet supplemented with 3.0 g CC kg−1, but there was no additional advantage of raising the content to 6.0 g CC kg−1 diet. The present study confirms the necessity of adding CC to practical diets for YTK given that practical diets with no CC supplementation contain lower digestible choline than the estimated requirement established in experiment 1.

Poly(itaconic acid) (PIA) was synthesized by persulfate initiated free-radical polymerization of ternary Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES) containing equimolar amounts of itaconic acid (IA) as hydrogen-bond donor, quaternary ammonium salt, namely choline chloride (CC) or tetraethylammonium chloride (TEAC) as hydrogen-bonds acceptors, and water as the initiator solvent. The syntheses were carried out at 65 °C for 2 h, and polymers produced were purified by dialysis and by treatment on strong cation exchange resin. The microstructures of the polymers were analysed using 1H, 13C and 1H–13C HSQC NMR spectroscopy. The unexpected methylene and methine groups resulting from decarboxylation and/or branching as well as choline ester moieties were detected as irregular structures in PIA synthesised in IA-TEAC and IA-CC DES, respectively.

Direct electrodeposition of Ni-Cu alloy films from nickel matte precursor in choline chloride (ChCl)/urea (1:2 molar ratio) based deep eutectic solvent (DES) has been investigated. The nickel matte was firstly sintered with KCl at 450 °C for 45 min to form metal chlorides (NiCl2 and CuCl), then the chlorinated nickel matte was dissolved into ChCl/urea DES, which served as electrolyte for the electrodeposition of Ni-Cu alloy films. For comparison, electrodeposition of Ni-Cu alloy films from pure chlorides (NiCl2·6H2O and CuCl) precursors in ChCl/urea DES has also been investigated. Cyclic voltammetry analysis confirms that the two electrodeposition processes in DES are similar, and Ni-Cu alloy films with different compositions can be deposited in a controlled manner. The phase compositions, microstructures and corrosion resistance performances of the two Ni-Cu alloy films electrodeposited from different precursors have also been investigated and compared. It is suggested that the chlorination-electrodeposition process in DES is a promising strategy for the electrochemical extraction of alloys from complex raw materials.

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs), derived from the mixtures of two or more hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) and hydrogen bond donor (HBD), were extensively reported as gas absorbents. In this work, four kinds of DESs were prepared from choline chloride (HBA) and glycerol, ethylene glycol, N-methylurea, and trifluoroacetamide. The molar ratio was fixed at 1:2 of choline chloride to HBD. New experimental results were reported for the solubility of NH3 in these DES over the temperature range of (303.15–333.15) K and pressures up to 580 kPa using isochoric saturation method. The molarity of NH3 in the DESs ranges up to 16.27 mol.kg −1. The dependence of the NH3 solubility in the DESs on temperature and pressure were accurately represented by Henry’s law model. Standard Gibbs energy, dissolution enthalpy and dissolution entropy were further deduced from Henry’s law constant of NH3 in the DESs.