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To provide a new reconstruction of the deglaciation of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet, in the form of calendar-year time-slices, which are particularly useful for ice sheet modelling, we have compiled and synthesized published geomorphological data for eskers, ice-marginal formations, lineations, marginal meltwater channels, striae, ice-dammed lakes, and geochronological data from radiocarbon, varve, optically-stimulated luminescence, and cosmogenic nuclide dating. This is summarized as a deglaciation map of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet with isochrons marking every 1000 years between 22 and 13 cal kyr BP and every hundred years between 11.6 and final ice decay after 9.7 cal kyr BP. Deglaciation patterns vary across the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet domain, reflecting differences in climatic and geomorphic settings as well as ice sheet basal thermal conditions and terrestrial versus marine margins. For example, the ice sheet margin in the high-precipitation coastal setting of the western sector responded sensitively to climatic variations leaving a detailed record of prominent moraines and other ice-marginal deposits in many fjords and coastal valleys. Retreat rates across the southern sector differed between slow retreat of the terrestrial margin in western and southern Sweden and rapid retreat of the calving ice margin in the Baltic Basin. Our reconstruction is consistent with much of the published research. However, the synthesis of a large amount of existing and new data support refined reconstructions in some areas. For example, the LGM extent of the ice sheet in northwestern Russia was located far east and it occurred at a later time than the rest of the ice sheet, at around 17–15 cal kyr BP. We also propose a slightly different chronology of moraine formation over southern Sweden based on improved correlations of moraine segments using new LiDAR data and tying the timing of moraine formation to Greenland ice core cold stages. Retreat rates vary by as much as an order of magnitude in different sectors of the ice sheet, with the lowest rates on the high-elevation and maritime Norwegian margin. Retreat rates compared to the climatic information provided by the Greenland ice core record show a general correspondence between retreat rate and climatic forcing, although a close match between retreat rate and climate is unlikely because of other controls, such as topography and marine versus terrestrial margins. Overall, the time slice reconstructions of Fennoscandian Ice Sheet deglaciation from 22 to 9.7 cal kyr BP provide an important dataset for understanding the contexts that underpin spatial and temporal patterns in retreat of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet, and are an important resource for testing and refining ice sheet models. Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

A review of published literature was undertaken to determine if there was a fingerprint of chemical weathering in regoliths subjected to periglacial conditions during their formation. If present, this fingerprint would be applied to the question of when blockfields in periglacial landscapes were initiated. These blocky diamicts are usually considered to represent remnants of regoliths that were chemically weathered under a warm, Neogene climate and therefore indicate surfaces that have undergone only a few metres to a few 10s of metres of erosion during the Quaternary. Based on a comparison of clay and silt abundances and secondary mineral assemblages from blockfields, other regoliths in periglacial settings, and regoliths from non-periglacial settings, a fingerprint of chemical weathering in periglacial landscapes was identified. A mobile regolith origin under, at least seasonal, periglacial conditions is indicated where clay(%) ≤ 0.5*silt(%) + 8 across a sample batch. This contrasts with a mobile regolith origin under non-periglacial conditions, which is indicated where clay(%) ≥ 0.5*silt(%) − 6 across a sample batch with clay(%) ≥ 0.5*silt(%) + 8 in at least one sample. A range of secondary minerals, which frequently includes interstratified minerals and indicates high local variability in leaching conditions, is also commonly present in regoliths exposed to periglacial conditions during their formation. Clay/silt ratios display a threshold response to temperature, related to the freezing point of water, but there is little response to precipitation or regolith residence time. Lithology controls clay and silt abundances, which increase from felsic, through intermediate, to mafic compositions, but does not control clay/silt ratios. Use of a sedigraph or Coulter Counter to determine regolith granulometry systematically indicates lower clay abundances and intra-site variability than use of a pipette or hydrometer. In contrast to clay/silt ratios, secondary mineral assemblages vary according to regolith residence time, temperature, and/or precipitation. A microsystems model is invoked as a conceptual framework in which to interpret the concurrent formation of the observed secondary mineral ranges. According to the fingerprint of chemical weathering in periglacial landscapes, there is generally no evidence of blockfield origins under warm Neogene climates. Nearly all blockfields appear to be a product of Quaternary physical and chemical weathering. A more dominant role for periglacial processes in further bevelling elevated, low relief, non-glacial surface remnants in otherwise glacially eroded landscapes is therefore indicated.

An investigation of vadose zone weathering processes has been undertaken on grussic saprolites developed on Californian granitoids. Preliminary results indicate strong climatic control, through infiltration, on the depth and intensity of weathering. At sites with higher infiltration, the vadose zone is comprehensively altered to grussic saprolite and saprock. Conversely, lower infiltration sites display only thin grussic saprolites, strongly influenced by rock texture. Both vadose zone and weathering depth appear to be governed by local base level, and vadose zone hydrology exerts a fundamental control on the effective operation and relative dominance of the key weathering reactions. In zones of matrix permeability, oxidation of biotite comprehensively disaggregates the rock but results in little mass loss and clay mineral formation. Conversely, the higher transient flow rates that characterize zones of fracture permeability result in plagioclase hydrolysis, significant mass losses and accompanying clay mineral formation. A variable hydrological regime may also contribute to high partial pressures of O 2 in vadose zone pore waters and pore spaces, thereby enhancing the oxidative environment and further predisposing grussic saprolite formation.

Relict surfaces contain information on past surface processes and long-term landscape evolution. A detailed investigation of relict non-glacial surfaces in a formerly glaciated mountain landscape of northern Sweden was completed, based on interpretation of colour infrared aerial photographs, analysis in a GIS, and fieldwork. Working backwards from landscape to process, surfaces were classified according to large- and small-scale morphologies that result from the operation of non-glacial processes, the degree of weathering, regolith characteristics, and the style of glacial modification. Surfaces were also compared in the GIS according to elevation, slope angle, and bedrock lithology. The study revealed five types of relict non-glacial surfaces but also two types of extensively weathered glacial surfaces that were transitional to relict non-glacial surfaces, illustrating spatially variable processes and rates of non-glacial and glacial landscape evolution. Rather than being static preglacial remnants, relict non-glacial surfaces are dynamic features that have continued to evolve during the Quaternary. The classification provides hypotheses for landscape evolution that can be field tested through, for example, terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide studies and geochemical analyses of fine matrix materials. The classification may be applicable to relict non-glacial surfaces in other formerly glaciated landscapes.

Relict non-glacial surfaces occur within many formerly glaciated landscapes and contain important information on past surface processes and long-term landscape evolution. Relict non-glacial surfaces are distinguishable from glacial surfaces by large-scale morphologies, including rounded summits, fluvial valleys, and cryoplanation terraces and pediments, and the presence of tors, blockfields, and/or saprolites. Preservation during glaciation occurs either through coverage by non-erosive, cold-based, ice or as nunataks. Although surface morphologies and denudation rates indicate a continuous non-glacial surface history since preglacial times, relict non-glacial surfaces are dynamic features that have evolved during the Quaternary. Depending on spatial variables such as lithology, slope, regolith depth and the abundance of fine matrix and water some surfaces are denuding very slowly, while others display more rapid denudation. High spatial variability in denudation rates results in changing surface morphologies over time. Denudation rates also display high temporal variability, with much surface evolution having perhaps occurred soon after the initial onset of glaciation or during paraglacial phases. While some parts of non-glacial landscapes are currently active, others may be largely inactive relicts of past higher energy regimes. Although non-glacial surfaces are dynamic much remains to be determined regarding surface denudation rates and the magnitude of morphological changes over time.

The morphodynamic behaviour of a multibarred beach in a fetch-limited, strong-wind bay (Seaford Beach, SE Australia) was examined during both high- and low-energy conditions, and considered in the context of a definition of low-energy provided in the literature. Measurements of nearshore waves, currents, and morphology revealed a bimodal behaviour. Under initial low-energy conditions, the beach exhibited a “low-tide terrace” state, and waves and currents were of very low magnitude. During subsequent high-energy conditions, the beach demonstrated dynamic behaviour through the formation of a transitional “transverse bar and rip-rhythmic bar and beach,” and migration of the middle bar, with the morphology remaining in an arrested high-energy state during intervening low-energy periods. Although broadly conforming to the morphodynamic model, the beach did exhibit some distinct characteristics attributable to its fetch-limited location; limited progression through the morphodynamic model; and the importance of wind direction and magnitude in governing morphodynamic behaviour. Furthermore, rip currents were not significant in driving beach change through intermediate states. The presence of infragravity energy in the storm wave spectra; a dissipative, multibarred surf zone; dynamic inner and middle bars; and the attainment of a “transitional transverse bar and rip-rhythmic bar and beach” state during rising wave conditions, underline Seaford Beach as “bimodal”, exhibiting process and morphologic features of both higher- and lower-energy beaches. As an example of a beach in a strong-wind bay, Seaford, illustrates that not all fetch-limited beaches are low-energy. Furthermore, the presence of infragravity energy in a highly fetch-limited environment indicates that infragravity energy may occur commonly in fetch-limited environments that are subject to periodic strong winds; a process that has remained largely unrecognised.