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During growth and senescence, fungal fruiting bodies accumulate essential and non-essential elements to different extent in their compartments. This study bases on a dataset of 32 basidiocarps of the ectomycorrhizal Lactarius pubescens sampled in a former U mining area. Statistical analyses were combined with rare earth element (REE, La-Lu) patterns to study the element distribution within sporocarp compartments and between three different age classes. For this purpose, fruiting bodies were separated into stipe, pileus trama, pileipelles and lamellae, dried and digested with HNO3. While macronutrient (e.g. K, Mg, P, S) contents resemble those of a non-mining affected site, several elements (e.g. Co, Mn) were site-specifically taken up relative to elevated soil contents. With statistics, two main element distribution groups for L. pubescens were revealed: mainly essential (Cu, Mg, Mn, P, S, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni) and mainly non-essential elements (Al, Ca, Fe, Sr, U, REE). The highest REE contents were found in pileipelles and lamellae, corresponding to relatively small cell sizes. Stipes and pileus trama had low REE contents due to their function as transport systems. During growth, light REE (La-Nd) were strongly enriched in lamellae and pileipelles. Middle REE (Sm-Dy) enrichment was found both in soil and fungal biomass. Contents of nutrients decrease with age, while non-essential elements are enriched especially in pileipelles and lamellae. A weak positive Ce anomaly appeared in the bioavailable soil fraction and in the pileipelles of younger individuals. Substrate dependent uptake thus gets reduced with sporocarp senescence, possibly due to redistribution.

This study presents morphological and phylogenetic characterizations of Nia vibrissa specimens detected on Fagus sylvatica baits, after six months of incubation in moist chambers at the laboratory. The baits had been submerged at Cascais marina, Portugal, during a survey carried out in 2006–2008. Morphological observations evidenced differences in basidiocarp color and in the morphology of the peridial hairs, varying from straight to curved and with bifurcate to non-bifurcate ends. Morphological variability has often been reported, associated to the suggestion that N. vibrissa is a species complex. We addressed this subject through the evaluation of pairwise distances and phylogenetic analyses applying Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood methods, to multi-sequence alignments involving the large subunit (LSU) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA. Even though the six N. vibrissa isolates under analysis consistently clustered together with high support values and most of their pairwise distances ranged between 0 and 3%, one of them presents a higher distance value (4%) relative to other two isolates. These results recommend the need of further genetic evaluations, involving more isolates and gene regions, to answer the question addressed in this study: is N. vibrissa a species complex?

Moniliophthora perniciosa is a hemibiotrophic fungus that causes witches' broom disease in cacao (Theobroma cacao L.). The biotrophic fungal phase initiates the disease and is characterized by a monokaryotic mycelium, while the necrotrophic phase is characterized by a dikaryotic mycelium and leads to necrosis of infected tissues. A study of the necrotrophic phase was conducted on bran-based solid medium, which is the only medium that enables basidiocarp and basidiospore production. Six different fungal developmental phases were observed according to the mycelium colour or the organ produced: white, yellow, pink, dark pink, primordium and basidiocarp. In this study, we identified notable proteins in each phase, particularly those accumulated prior to basidiocarp formation. Proteins were analysed by proteomics; 2-D gels showed 300-550 spots. Statistically differentially accumulated spots were sequenced by mass spectrometry and 259 proteins were identified and categorized into nine functional classes. Proteins related to energy metabolism, protein folding and morphogenesis that were potentially involved in primordium and basidiocarp formation were identified; these proteins may represent useful candidates for further analysis related to the spread and pathogenesis of this fungus. To the best of our knowledge, this report describes the first proteomic analysis of the developmental phases of Moniliophthora perniciosa.

The common split-gilled mushroom, Schizophyllum commune Fr., is an edible medicinal mushroom found growing on wood under natural conditions across the globe. The present study was carried out to investigate the morphological and anatomical features of the basidiocarp and the cultural characteristics of S. commune along with identification of locally available agricultural residues as a potential substrate for large scale production of the mushroom. The morphology of S. commune revealed it as a split-gilled white fungus with flabelliform basidiocarp. The polypore was identified as trimitic in nature with thin walled generative, skeletal and binding hyphae bearing septa and clamp connections. A potato dextrose agar (PDA) culture from the fruiting body yielded a rapidly growing white woolly mould. S. commune was confirmed by sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region. The mushroom seed or spawns were produced by growing the mycelium on paddy grains with complete white cotton mycelial growth and a characteristic tart and disagreeable smell. The commercial cultivation technology of S. commune was standardized on paddy, wheat straw and saw dust bag logs at 28 ± 2°C and 80–90% relative humidity. The cultivation trial recorded paddy straw supplemented with wheat bran as the best substrate for growing of S. commune with highest fresh weight yield of 91.9 gm/bag, and biological efficiency of 18.33%, reduced spawn run days and days to harvesting.

Distribution patterns, ecology and habitats of Hericium erinaceus in Slovakia are presented, together with an indication of its population size and dynamics as driven by the type of substratum the fungus feeds on. Basidiomata have been recorded both on living and dead trees, predominantly on oaks (Quercus spp.) but also on European beech (Fagus sylvatica), and at altitudes ranging from 103 to 753 m, which in Slovakia corresponds to warm hilly and upland beech-oak forests. Standing trunks were a more common substratum than fallen trunks. Although the fungus tends to occur in old-growth forests, nearly half of the observations were from managed forests. Given the observed distribution, we conclude that H. erinaceus is not a strict indicator of intact old-growth forests in Slovakia.

In this study, we examined the influences of four light intensities on mushroom biomass and effects of a blue (B) light-emitting diode (LED) source with 10–40 μmol m−2 s−1 of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) on the antioxidant capacity and soluble sugar content of the edible oyster mushroom L. sajor-caju Fr. which is popularly cultivated in Taiwan. Fruiting body initiation and development of mushrooms cultivated on blocks made of sawdust, rice-bran, and wheat-bran media were carried out with an 8-h photoperiod at 26 °C and 85% relative humidity under LEDs lights inside growth chambers. When the basidiome has began development, mushroom blocks containing primordia were exposed to different light conditions for 7 days. Results showed that B-LED PPFD of mushrooms significantly promoted the accumulation of dry biomass. This study explored the relationship between the light intensity of B-LED and antioxidant properties. Different light intensities variably affected the antioxidant system of the mushroom, and higher light intensities resulted in an increased DPPH radical-scavenging effect, Fe-chelating ability, and reducing power. In addition, 40 PPFD of the B-light source caused greater accumulation of soluble sugars than other B-light intensities. Precise management of B light may hold promise in promoting the nutritional value of edible mushrooms cultivated in controlled environments with future utilization of LEDs on an industrial scale.

This paper is the first report on the collection, isolation, and culture evaluation of the naturally occurring Philippine strain of Lentinus strigosus . In secondary mycelial growth, Sabouraud dextrose agar and coconut water agar were the most suitable culture media, which showed the fast rate of mycelia growth and produced very thick mycelia density. Cracked corn as granulated spawning material recorded the shortest incubation period of 7.33 days. The possibility of L. strigosus fruiting body production on rice straw and sawdust based substrate formulations was demonstrated. Pure rice straw produced the highest total yield of fruiting bodies (104.87 g/bag) and biological efficiency (20.97%). However, substrate supplementation must be investigated in order to improve the yield and biological efficiency. The chemical constituents and biological activities of L. strigosus are currently under investigation.

Background Lentinus squarrosulus Mont. is a wild edible mushroom appreciated by the local communities in Africa and Asia for its taste and meaty texture as well as its purported medicinal benefits; however, it is relatively unknown to the communities in other parts of the world and it remains underutilized thus far. In view of the increasing scientific studies carried on L. squarrosulus, a systematic compilation of the research progress and future prospects is deemed timely. Scope and approach This review summarized the widely scattered literature on L. squarrosulus with an emphasis on its nutritional and nutraceutical properties. Cultivation techniques for the production of basidiocarp, mycelium, and culture broth – representing the different stages in its life cycle and sources of distinct chemical components – are also presented. Key findings and conclusions Basidiocarps of L. squarrosulus are good sources of carbohydrate, protein, and minerals, and are considered to be on par with other edible-medicinal mushrooms. Bioactive chemical components, such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, immunostimulatory glucans, antifungal proteins, and lectins, have been identified and/or isolated from L. squarrosulus. Apart from various in vitro bioactivities assessment, the extracts of L. squarrosulus were noted to confer protection against oxidative stress and enhanced the healing of ulcer in animal models. Large-scale production of L. squarrosulus is deemed feasible considering the widely occurrence of this species and growing reports on its successful artificial cultivation via solid-substrate and liquid fermentation. In conclusion, findings thus far indicate that the basidiocarp and mycelium could be developed as potential sources of functional ingredients but further studies, particularly on bioactive compounds, mechanism of action in vivo leading to clinical trials, and quality control of L. squarrosulus biomass from different cultivation methods, are recommended.

Background Lecanicillium fungicola causes dry bubble disease in Agaricus bisporus mushrooms leading to significant economic losses in commercial production. Aims To monitor the infection process of L. fungicola in Brazilian strains of A. bisporus. Methods The interaction between the mycelium of L. fungicola (LF.1) and three strains of A. bisporus (ABI 7, ABI 11/14 and ABI 11/21) was studied. Electron microscopy and X-ray microanalyses of vegetative growth and basidiocarp infection were evaluated. Results Micrographs show that the vegetative mycelium of the Brazilian strains of A. bisporus is not infected by the parasite. The images show that the pathogen can interlace the hyphae of A. bisporus without causing damage, which contributes to the presence of L. fungicola during the substrate colonization, allowing their presence during primordial formation of A. bisporus . In the basidiocarp, germ tubes form within 16 h of infection with L. fungicola and the beginning of penetration takes place within 18 h, both without the formation of specialized structures. Conclusions Scanning electron microscopy enabled the process of colonization and reproduction to be observed within the formation of phialides, conidiophores and verticils of L. fungicola . The formation of calcium oxalate crystals by the pathogen was also visible using the X-ray microanalysis, both at the hyphae in the Petri plate and at basidiocarp infection site.

Tricholoma matsutake is an economically valuable fungus in Japan. Its fruit bodies occur in colonies established in natural pine forests. We traced colony establishment processes of T. matsutake in 2001 and 2010 by using microsatellite markers. T. matsutake genets persisted at least for a decade. Comparing colonies found in 2001 and 2010, five novel colonies were observed in 2010, where the organic layer was removed or pine trees were regenerated less than 50 y ago. The novel colonies were genotyped, and all of them were different from colonies found in 2001, indicating that these colonies were established by dispersed basidiospores. Novel genet and candidate parent genets were located in the same ridge, and the mean geographical distance between a novel genet and a parent genet was 19.59 ± 14.73 m, indicating that basidiospores may colonize more easily on roots of hosts near parental basidiocarps. In conclusion, sufficient basidiospore supply and organic layer removal or pine tree regeneration were essential factors for colony establishment of T. matsutake.

Phellinidium, including 13 accepted polypore species mostly with resupinate basidiocarps, is one of the most aggressive forest pathogenic genera. This genus is characterized by the combination of a monomitic hyphal structure, abundant hyphoid setae in the context and trama, and hyaline and thin-walled basidiospores. To explore the relationships among the species of Phellinidium, especially those between forest pathogens and saprophytes, we examined 29 specimens representing all 13 previously known species from Asia, Europe and America from morphological and phylogenetic perspectives. A new genus, Coniferiporia, was found to segregate from Phellinidium for three aggressive forest pathogens, and three new combinations, viz. Coniferiporia qilianensis (the generic type), Coniferiporia weirii and Coniferiporia sulphurascens, were proposed. Phellinidium cryptocystidiatum was treated as a synonym of C. sulphurascens. The circumscription of Phellinidium was delimited to accommodate Phellinidium asiaticum, Phellinidium ferrugineofuscum (the generic type), Phellinidium fragrans and Phellinidium pouzarii. Accordingly, the concept of Phellinidium was emended to accommodate resupinate species bearing cylindrical to oblong-ellipsoid or allantoid basidiospores. No species of Phellinidium under the new circumscription has been reported to be a forest pathogen. Phellinidium noxium and Phellinidium rufitinctum were excluded from Phellinidium, while the taxonomical positions of Phellinidium aciferum, Phellinidium lamaënse, and Phellinidium orientale are still uncertain.

Fifteen species of xylariaceous fungi were isolated from more than 100 Scytinopogon sp. basidiomata in three forests and identified by rDNA ITS sequencing. Xylariaceous fungi were present in the lower part of the basidiomata, occurred less often in the upper part and were absent in the tips of its coralloid basidiomata. These results indicated that xylariaceous fungi grow continuously in the basidiomata and that the apical growth of Scytinopogon sp. basidiomata was faster than the growth of xylariaceous fungi in its host. The results suggested that these xylariaceous fungi established a stable coexistence with Scytinopogon sp. in the forest. Five species of xylariaceous fungi were endophytes in nearby plants. Our study suggested that these endophytic xylariaceous fungi were sources of fungicolous fungi in Scytinopogon sp. in the forest.

Antrodia is a polyphyletic genus, comprising brown-rot polypores with annual or short-lived perennial resupinate, dimitic basidiocarps. Here we focus on species that are closely related to Antrodia crassa, and investigate their phylogeny and species delimitation using geographic, ecological, morphological and molecular data (ITS and LSU rDNA, tef1). Phylogenetic analyses distinguished four clades within the monophyletic group of eleven conifer-inhabiting species (five described herein): (1)A. crassa s. str. (boreal Eurasia), Antrodia cincta sp. nova (North America) and Antrodia cretacea sp. nova (holarctic), all three being characterized by inamyloid skeletal hyphae that dissolve quickly in KOH solution; (2) Antrodia ignobilis sp. nova, Antrodia sitchensis and Antrodia sordida from North America, and Antrodia piceata sp. nova (previously considered conspecific with A. sitchensis) from Eurasia, possessing amyloid skeletal hyphae; (3) Antrodia ladiana sp. nova from the southern part of the USA, Antrodia pinea from East Asia, and Antrodia ferox – so far known from subtropical North America, but here reported also from Eurasia. These three species have inamyloid hyphae and narrow basidiospores; (4) the North American Antrodia pini-cubensis, sharing similar morphological characters with A. pinea, forming a separate clade. The habitat data indicate that several species are threatened by intensive forestry.

Accurate taxonomy is a key for the exploration of the advantages and proper utilization of mushrooms for the benefit of humankind. Genomic DNA of mushroom basidiocarp were extracted, amplified using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) primers, purified, and sequenced. The sequence data were assembled and compared against the GenBank database using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST). Phylogenetic tree was constructed using Neighbor-Joining method. BLAST analysis confirmed the molecular identities of 35 mushrooms with similarities ranged from 97.16% to 100% with their respective GenBank sequences equivalent. Eleven clades of family separation were formed in the phylogenetic tree, which indicate a wide genetic diversity among mushroom samples. However, 23 species were considered as newly recorded mushroom species in the Philippines. The present work established the conclusive identities of the Philippine mushrooms, which are very essential baseline information for their proper utilization in various biotechnological applications.

An archaeological waterlogged polypore was found in the Final Jomon period (circa 2600 years ago) at the Neolithic site of Kitashirakawa in Kyoto, Japan. The fragile polypore was treated with the feather-keratin method that we developed for the preservation of wet organic archaeological materials. The method reinforced the polypore against the collapse caused by air-drying. The anatomical features of the polypore were observed under light microscopy and the host wood present at the edge of the basidiocarp was identified as Morus sp. on the basis of anatomical observations. Eventually, the polypore was identified as Inonotus sanghuang . Macroscopic and microscopic observations were carried out in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the keratin treatment on the polypore tissue. The keratin consolidated to the hyphal cell walls, where it stabilized the thick walled fungal mycelium that makes up the polypore fruiting body.

ResumenGeastrum violaceum se registra por primera vez para la micobiota mexicana del bosque tropical caducifolio. Las características macromorfológicas exclusivas son: exoperidio de color rosa, rojo a violeta pálido, peristoma con pocos pliegues y no delimitado. Esta especie es descrita e ilustrada con fotografías y dibujos de las estructuras macro y microscópicas del basidioma. Los ejemplares están depositados en los Herbarios ENCB, FCME, MEXU y UJAT.AbstractGeastrum violaceum is recorded for the first time to the Mexican mycobiota of the tropical dry forest. The exclusive macromorphological features are: exoperidium pink, red to pale violet, peristome with a few folds and not delimited. This species is described and illustrated with photographs and drawing-lines of the macro and microscopic structures of the basidiome. The specimens are deposited in Herbaria ENCB, FCME, MEXU and UJAT.

The present study focuses on a simple, low-cost and rapid bio-reduction of silver nitrate to silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using the hot water extract of fresh basidiocarps of Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus. P. cornucopiae is an edible mushroom with medicinal properties. The UV–visible (UV–vis) spectra showed intense absorption peaks at 400 to 500 nm, which are typical absorption bands of spherical AgNPs. Fourier transform infra-red (FT-IR) spectra confirmed the involvement of various functional groups present in the biomolecules for reduction and capping of AgNPs. The spherical shaped morphology and

Tricholoma matsutake is an economically important fungus in Japan. Its basidiocarps occur in groups called shiro. Little is known about the relationship between the expansion rate of shiro and the number of basidiocarps or meteorological factors. When data from an 18-yr survey were analyzed using a hierarchical Bayesian framework, the expansion rate was estimated to be 0.17 ± 0.01 m yr−1. Positive correlations were found between the expansion rate and the number of basidiocarps, mean air and soil temperature, and total precipitation. Similarly, there was a positive correlation with an index of accumulated warmth, termed WI20, especially in the pre-emergence season. The Akaike information criterion (AIC) of linear models decreased when precipitation was excluded as an explanatory variable. Furthermore, mean air temperature and WI20 showed positive correlations with the number of basidiocarps. These results suggest that the effect of temperature in the pre-emergence season is greater than that of precipitation with respect to the expansion rate of shiro, which in turn affects the numbers of basidiocarps.

The genus Ganoderma commonly comprises wood decay fungal species that actively produce a large number of spores liberated from basidiocarps thereby contributing significantly to fungal air spora worldwide. Basidiospores of Ganoderma incite disease of tree species, and constitute aeroallergens hazardous to people. Earlier forecasting models to predict high concentrations of Ganoderma spores pointed out the dew point temperature, maximum and average wind speed and precipitation as significant meteorological parameters that affect the basidiospore release. The main aim of this work was to study relationships between basidiospore counts and meteorological conditions and to verify whether regression models based on data collected at aerobiological studies accurately predict the risk of exposure of people with spore-related allergies. Basidiospores were captured over three autumn months from 2006 to 2008 using two Hirst-type volumetric spore traps with identical sampling protocols and evaluation methods. Daily spore concentrations were sampled and the dynamics of changes in Ganoderma spore concentrations sampled at heights used in standard aerobiological studies, located several meters above the ground level (a.g.l.), were compared with those recorded at the same site, but at the human respiration zone, much closer to the ground. Relationships between basidiospore concentrations and weather variables were investigated with the Spearman's rank correlation analysis. To reveal differences in meteorological parameters and Ganoderma spore content between consecutive years and months studied, the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U , Kruskal–Wallis and Dunn's tests were applied. Furthermore artificial neural networks and multivariate regression trees were used, for which meteorological parameters were input variables, while Ganoderma basidiospore abundance was an output variable. Considerable differences were observed between Ganoderma spore concentrations at people's respiratory zone and 18 a.g.l., a height used in standard aerobiological studies. At 1 m a.g.l. the concentrations were 1.2 to 6 times higher than those at 18 m a.g.l. Moreover, the dynamics of changes throughout spore trapping seasons were different; at 18 m a.g.l. they fluctuations were similar across all years sampled, whereas at 1 m a.g.l. there were wide variations between years. The correlation between weather variables and concentrations of captured basidiospores at these levels was significant but rather low. The results questioned the usefulness of models based on spore samplings performed at several meters a.g.l. and suggested that the real numbers of basidiospores that are inhaled by people might depend on parameters that were as yet not included in the models.

The veiled polypore, Cryptoporus volvatus, is distributed widely in North America and East Asia and is believed to have a mutualistic relationship with coleopteran species—the fungus providing food and shelter in basidiocarps and beetle helping disperse spores. Seventy fresh basidiocarps of C. volvatus were collected from the Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora) in the spring season of 2013 from two sites in Korea. A total of 251 insects (101 adult and 150 larvae) were collected from the inside of basidiocarps and identified using morphology and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences. Six species belonging to five coleopteran families were identified. The number of spores attached to the bodies of adult insects was counted and average spore counts for each of the six species ranged between 1.0 × 104 and 5.2 × 105 spores/individual. Across localities, three species were shared (Aethina suturalis, Trogossita japonica and Parabolitophagus felix) and carried spores at high densities on their bodies, making them more likely to aid in spore dispersal.

Five sesquiterpene carboxylic acids (1-5) and one nor-sesquiterpene carboxylic acid (6) of the very rare ventricosane type, named penarines A-F, were isolated from fruiting bodies of the basidiomycete Hygrophorus penarius (Hygrophoraceae). This is the first report of (nor)-sesquiterpenes isolated from basidiocarps of the family Hygrophoraceae. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive 1D ((1)H, (13)C) and 2D (HSQC, HMBC, COSY, ROESY) NMR spectroscopic analyses as well as high-resolution mass spectrometry studies. Additionally, the only known member of this rare type of sesquiterpenes, ventricos-7(13)-ene (7), could be identified via headspace GC-MS analysis in a fruiting body of H. penarius. Compounds 1-6 were devoid of remarkable antifungal activity against Cladosporium cucumerinum. Additionally, the cytotoxic activities of compounds 1 and 2 were evaluated against the human prostate cancer cell line PC-3 and the colon cancer cell line HT-29 showing no significant cytotoxic activity.

For the first time, the pigment composition of basidiocarps from the Chilean mushroom Cortinarius pyromyxa was studied under various aspects like phylogeny, chemistry and antibiotic activity. A molecular biological study supports the monotypic position of C. pyromyxa in subgenus Myxacium, genus Cortinarius. Four undescribed diterpenoids, named pyromyxones A-D, were isolated from fruiting bodies of C. pyromyxa. Their chemical structures were elucidated based on comprehensive one- and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopic analysis, ESI-HRMS measurements, as well as X-ray crystallography. In addition, the absolute configurations of pyromyxones A-D were established with the aid of JH,H, NOESY spectra and quantum chemical CD calculation. The pyromyxones A-D possess the undescribed nor-guanacastane skeleton. Tested pyromyxones A, B, and D exhibit only weak activity against gram-positive Bacillus subtilis and gram-negative Aliivibrio fischeri as well as the phytopathogenic fungi Botrytis cinerea, Septoria tritici and Phytophthora infestans.

A rare wild-Serbian Ganoderma applanatum strain BGS6Ap (GASB) was morphologically identified based on its basidiocarp with brownish-red cap and woody stipe. Molecularly, GASB DNA was extracted, sequenced (651 bp) and subjected to phylogenetic analysis with evolutionary distance (Knuc). A plasmid Editor (ApE) software was used to verify the sequence and GASB was found to be 99% similarity to the commercial G. applanatum (GA) ATCC44053. The production of GASB's biomass and endopolysaccharide (ENS) in different temperature was screened at 20 °C, 25 °C and 30 °C via one-factor-at-a-time (OFAAT) scheme in a submerged liquid fermentation (SLF). Lower temperature was chosen due to GASB's natural habitat, which belongs to temperate continental climates with the influence of air currents from the Carpathians and the Mediterranean. Using the OFAAT data, the SLF was further optimised using response surface methodology (RSM) to generate biomass-ENS based on temperature (20°C–30 °C), agitation rate (100–200 rpm), glucose concentration (10 g/L–50 g/L) and initial pH (4–6). The highest production of biomass (17.51 g/L) and ENS (3.47 g/L) was generated using optimal conditions of 25 °C, 150 rpm, 10 g/L of glucose and pH 6. To study the structural composition, ENS confirmed spectral linkages in FTIR (2925 cm−1, 1623 cm−1, 1073 cm−1, 890 cm−1) and NMR ( δ 4.30, 4.80, 5.20 ppm) as endo-β-D-glucan. This approach could serve as a blueprint for novel mycelial biomass and endo-β-D-glucan production of GASB which can be further studied on different temperate basidiomycetes.

Yellowing or bacteriosis is the most severe disease of Pleurotus eryngii, the mushroom commonly called “cardoncello” or “Ferula mushroom” in Italy. Two cropping cycles were performed with five commercial strains, to find out how acetic acid or hydrochloric acid solutions can be used to prevent or stop the disease. Pseudomonas “reactans” and other fluorescent Pseudomonads were consistently isolated from symptomatic basidiomata. The Colony-Forming-Units of total bacteria, fluorescent Pseudomonads and fungi, found in casing soil at the end of both experiments, were significantly lower in substrate bags treated with either of the two acidic solutions. This research showed that treatments with acetic acid – and to a lesser extent hydrochloric acid solutions – can reduce the spread and severity of P. eryngii yellowing.

Ectomycorrhizal fruiting bodies (basidiomata) collected from forested areas in southwestern New Brunswick were analyzed for total mercury, sulphur, nitrogen, and carbon concentrations (THg, TS, TN, and TC, respectively). This analysis was done for caps and stalks and by development stage (emergent, mature, senescent) across 27 species associated with five classes, eight families, and 13 genera. Across the species, THg correlated positively with TN and TS, thereby implying N as well as S mitigated transfer of Hg from the mycelia into the basidiomata, with THg ranging from 3 to 10 457 ppb. TS, TN, and TC varied from 0.07 to 1, 1 to 11, and 43 to 53 %, respectively. Cap and stalk THg, TS, TN, and TC were also correlated to one another, with mean stalk/cap ratios of 0.59, 0.76, 0.71, and 0.98, respectively. Soil availability indexed by THg, TS, TN, and TC within the forest floor contributed to basidiomatal THg as well. THg, THg/TS, and THg/N varied strongly by species. These variations involved: (i) no growth dilution and no volatilization (Group I), (ii) growth dilution only (Group II), (iii) growth dilution followed by loss during senescence (Group III), and (iv) growth dilution combined with loss from emergence onward (Group IV). Depending on species, TN and TS remained the same or declined from 100 % at emergence to about 80 and 70 % at senescence. Lack of THg decline for the Group I species would be due to HgS encapsulation. Reanalyzing the freeze-dried samples revealed that THg continued to drop during the first year of air-dry storage for the Group II, II, and IV species, but TS, TN, and TC remained stable. The results were quantified by way of best-fitted regression models.

This article summarizes trends in total Hg concentrations (THg) in fungal fruiting bodies (basidiomata) and their underlying soil substrates in the absence and presence of surrounding moss layers. Three forest locations across south-western New Brunswick spanning from a central mainland location to Grand Manan Island in the Bay of Fundy were chosen for the study. Geographic location had an effect on THg in the soil layers and in the basidiomata (THg on island > THg along the mainland coast > THg mainland) but this effect was weak and probably obscured by the large THg variations within the basidiomata and their soil and moss substrates at each location. Within the soil, THg increased with increasing total organic S (TS) and C (TC) concentrations, and depended on type of moss cover if present. Within the mosses, THg varied by species, by moss-internal TS, and by THg and TS within the underlying soil. Basidiomatal THg also varied strongly by species, and was further affected by: (i) developmental stage, from emergence to senescence, (ii) cap versus stalk, (iii) basidiomatal TS, and (iv) soil THg, TS and TC. These variations and their interdependencies were explored and quantified by way of multiple regression analyses. Basidiomatal bioconcentration of soil THg (F layer) varied strongly by species as well. Basidiomatal Hg extraction from the soil was estimated to be small in terms of reducing the accumulated Hg loads within the soil, but represents a re-entry point of Hg into the local food chain.

Pisolithus microcarpus (Cooke and Massee) G. Cunn. is a model organism for the studies on the ecology, physiology, and genetics of the ectomycorrhizal associations. However, little is known about the basidiosporogenesis in this species and, in particular, the nuclear behavior after karyogamy. In this work, the events involved in basidiosporogenesis and meiosis in P. microcarpus were analyzed using fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy. The basidia are formed inside peridioles by the differentiation of the cells along the whole hyphae. Basidial cells measure 12–18 μm in length and 6–7 μm in diameter. P. microcarpus produces eight basidiospores per basidium imbibed in a gelatinous matrix in the basidiocarp. The basidiospores are globose, equinate, with blunt spines, and measure 6–8 μm. Karyogamy can take place inside basidia as well as in undifferentiated hyphal cells followed by nuclear migration to a newly developed basidium where meiosis takes place. After the formation of the meiotic tetrad, one round of post-meiotic mitosis occurs, resulting in the production of eight nuclei per basidium. The newly-formed nuclei migrate into the basidiospores asynchronously, resulting in the production of eight uninucleate spores. This corresponds to pattern A of post-meiotic mitosis. This work is the first report on meiosis and post-meiotic mitosis during basidiosporogenesis in P. microcarpus and contributes to clarify some aspects of the biology and genetics of this ectomycorrhizal species.

Polypores play a major role in wood decomposition. Based on presence/absence of basidiocarps, it has been shown that richness of polypores in forests is strongly affected by the size of logs. However, no study has addressed the relationship between the log size and basidiocarp production. Here, we examined the relationship between log diameter and number of basidiocarps and volume of the fructification (as surrogate of biomass) of the polypore community in Andean Alder forests from Northwest Argentina. We found a positive relationship between log diameter and basidiocarp production in the whole community analysis (fructifications of all species). This pattern was also followed by dominant species (Bjerkandera adusta, Trametes cubensis and T. versicolor) analyzed individually. The relationship was generally higher for volume of fructification than for number of basidiocarps. Through these effects on basidiocarp production, higher log diameter could promote higher sexual spore production and dispersal hence a higher genetic variability and viable populations of wood-decay species. Fil: Urcelay, Roberto Carlos. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal; Argentina Fil: Robledo, Gerardo Lucio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal; Argentina

In our screening, we aimed to detect phosphonates and other forms of organic phosphorus in basidiocarps and vegetative mycelia of six common basidiomycetes. Organic phosphorus-containing compounds were extracted in alkali and analysed using 31 P NMR. Monoesters, diesters, pyrophosphates and polyphosphates detected in high amounts reflected the high metabolic activity in basidiocarps (growth, production of basidiospores). Phosphonates were present in all samples, in concentrations ranging from 14 mg kg −1 of the extracted phosphorus in Boletus badius basidiocarp to 140 mg kg −1 in Amanita muscaria vegetative mycelium. Detection of phosphonates in basidiocarps together with our previous evidence from laboratory experiments support the fungal production of natural phosphonates in forest ecosystems.

Pleurotus ostreatus strains obtained by interbreeding were cultivated under warm conditions (27 °C), with the aim to identify germoplasm adequate to commercial production. Based on the radial growth rate of monokaryotic mycelia isolated from two P. ostreatus strains, a culture isolate was selected from each type of compatibility, and interbred to obtain 16 strains. Pasteurized barley straw was used as the substrate for mushroom production. The mean biological efficiency of the strains was 84.17% and the production rate was 1.76%. In vitro laccase activity was tested for both parental strains and the four most productive strains of progeny. The mean enzyme activity of the strains was 1.21 μg mol/disc/ABTS oxidized. These results show the high potential of these strains for their use in substrate delignification and the production of basidiocarps under natural environmental conditions of warm regions.

As polysaccharides of the mushroom genus Pleurotus can act as biological response modifiers, we now describe the chemical characterization of a new water-soluble αβ-glucan from the fruiting bodies of the edible mushroom Pleurotus florida. It was obtained via successive aq. extraction, freeze-thawing, precipitation with Fehling solution, and dialysis through a membrane with Mr 1000 kDa cut-off. It was analyzed using NMR spectroscopy, HPSEC, monosaccharide composition, methylation analysis, and a controlled Smith degradation. It was a branched glucan (Mw 1.1 × 106 g/mol), with a main-chain of (1→3)-linked-α- d -Glcp residues, partially substituted at O-6 by single-unit β- d -Glcp, and a minor proportion by side-chains with 3-O-substituted β- d -Glcp groups.

An unusual water-soluble glucan was isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma resinaceum following alkaline extraction. Its structure was determined using NMR spectroscopy (13C, 1H, and 1H (obs.), 13C HMQC), methylation analysis, and controlled Smith degradation. It was a highly branched β- d -glucan containing a (1 → 3)-linked β- d -glucopyranosyl main chain, partially substituted at O-6, principally, by side chains of 4-O-substituted β- d -glucopyranosyl groups, on average to every two residues of the backbone.

Fomitiporia punicata sp. nov., collected from Shaanxi Province, northern China, and so far exclusively on Punica granatum (Punicaceae), is described and illustrated, and its preliminary phylogenetic relationships are inferred based on sequence data from the ribosomal ITS-5.8S regions. Fomitiporia punicata belongs to the F. robusta-F. punctata complex, but is characterized by an effused-reflexed to pileate basidioma with triquetrous to ungulate pilei, pale yellowish brown to cinnamon brown pore surface, moderately thick-walled skeletal hyphae in the context, which are partly collapsed on drying, lack of setae, presence of fusoid to subulate cystidioles, and growth on Punica. It also forms a distinct clade within Fomitiporia, and is related to some species from the temperate or Mediterranean zone of the northern hemisphere. An identification key to the species of Fomitiporia recorded in China is provided. Fomitiporia tibetica is transferred to Pseudoinonotus. (C) 2007 The British Mycological Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Although spore dispersal is the predominant mode of spread in fungi, the functional ecology of offspring (spore) size and shape has received little attention. We investigated the relationship between spore size (volume) and shape and various life history parameters among 303 European polypore species. In an analysis of variance, basidiocarp size, nutritional mode (parasitic vs. saprotrophic) and host (conifer vs. deciduous) accounted for a significant part of the variation in spore size. Species producing large basidiocarps also produce large spores, parasites produce larger spores than saprotrophs, and species colonizing deciduous trees generally produce larger spores than those colonizing conifers. There was a correlation between spore size and shape, with larger spores being more spherical. The most important factors accounting for variation in spore shape were rot type (white rot vs. brown rot) and nutritional mode, with white rot species and parasites having more spherical spores compared to brown rotters and saprotrophs.

A new fossil polypore, Ganodermites libycus (Polyporales, Ganodermataceae), occurs in the form of a structurally preserved (permineralized) basidiocarp from the Lower Miocene (Neogene) of Jebel Zelten in the northern part of the Libyan Sahara, North Africa. The basidiocarp is characterized by distinct growth increments, a stratified hymenium, and equidistantly arranged pores. The trimitic hyphal system consists of generative, skeletal, and binding hyphae; clavate pilocystidia regularly occur among the tramal hyphae. The basidia are clavate and (2–)4-sterigmate. They produce ellipsoid, apically truncate basidiospores, which display a two-layered ganodermatoid spore wall. Ganodermites libycus represents the earliest persuasive fossil evidence for polypores closely related to the extant genus Ganoderma , and displays a mosaic of characters seen in modern Ganoderma species. Coprolite-filled tunnels in the basidiocarp indicate that G. libycus was utilized as a food source by fungivorous arthropods or arthropod larvae.

The selective fungitoxicity of famoxadone, tebuconazole and trifloxystrobin between a pathogenic strain of Verticillium fungicola (Preuss) Hassebr and Agaricus bisporus (L) Sing was studied in vitro and in mushroom growing rooms. None of the above fungicides was found to be as selective as prochloraz, which inhibited the in vitro growth of V. fungicola at very low concentrations (ED 50 of 0.002 μg ml −1 ) and was fungitoxic to A. bisporus at much higher levels (ED 50 of 5.08 μg ml −1 ). Tebuconazole was the least selective, followed by trifloxystrobin and famoxadone, which exhibited satisfactory in vitro selectivity with ED 50 values of 0.5 and 13.1 μg ml −1 for V. fungicola and A. bisporus , respectively. In trials in mushroom-growing rooms drench applications of formulated products of the above fungicides controlled the development of dry bubble disease on cultures of A. bisporus artificially inoculated with V. fungicola 6 days after casing. The fungicides were applied one day before inoculation and the disease levels observed in the cultures treated with famoxadone, tebuconazole and trifloxystrobin formulations were comparable to those obtained with the reference commercial products of prochloraz and carbendazim. Satisfactory disease control was achieved with the formulations of famoxadone, tebuconazole and trifloxystrobin used as single applications at rates equal to or higher than 0.27, 1.2 and 1.2 g active ingredient per m 2 of culture, respectively. Differences in effectiveness between single and split applications were not observed. Although the number of diseased mushrooms was reduced by famoxadone, tebuconazole or trifloxystrobin, this was not reflected on yield increase or retention of basidiocarp whiteness of the commercial strains of A. bisporus used in the experiments.

Lentinula edodes mushrooms were produced by solid-state fermentation, using as substrates different mixtures of wheat straw (WS), corn-cobs (CC), and oak-wood sawdust (OS). Studies were conducted for evaluating their bio-transformation efficiency with respect to substrate colonization, time of sporophore production, biological efficiency, and mushroom nitrogen content, as well as basidiocarp number and size. First, the potential of residue-substrates to support early fructification was evaluated in glass-tubes. The mushrooms appeared 50–60 days after inoculation, with WS and CC promoting earlier sporophore initiation than did OS. A second experiment, where L. edodes mushrooms were cultivated in ‘bag-logs’, revealed high productivity on CC and high mushroom protein content on OS-based substrates. However, WS appeared to promote early fructification and mushroom quality. Finally, mushroom production characteristics in tubes and bags were correlated with nitrogen content and C/N ratio of substrates. Early fructification was positively related to nitrogen content. Substrate mixtures with lower C/N ratio favoured earlier sporophore induction.

‘Basidiocarps of Auricularia can be stored dry, discharging ballistospores upon rehydration. This article describes methods to demonstrate basidiospore germination by repetition or formation of a primary mycelium and/or microconidia’

Gymnomyces xerophilus sp. nov., a sequestrate species in the Russulaceae, is characterized and described morphologically as a new species from Quercus-dominated woodlands in California. ITS sequences recovered from healthy, ectomycorrhizal roots of Quercus douglasii and Q. wislizeni matched those of G. xerophilus basidiomata, confirming the ectomycorrhizal status of this fungus. Phylogenetic analysis of the ITS region places G. xerophilus in a clade with both agaricoid (Russula in the section Polychromae) and sequestrate (Gymnomyces, Cystangium) relatives. We include a dichotomous key to the species of Gymnomyces associated with Quercus.

Haloaleurodiscus gen. nov. (Homobasidiomycetes) is described from Japanese mangrove forests with one species H. mangrovei sp. nov. The genus is morphologically characterized by having resupinate basidioma, nodose-septate hyphae, sulphoaldehyde-positive gloeocystidia, dendrohyphidia and amyloid basidiospores with minute warts. These morphological features are similar to those of Aleurodiscus s. lat., but H. mangrovei differs from the Aleurodiscus primarily in occurring in white pocket-rot and is not closely related based on ribosomal DNA sequence analyses. Molecular data suggest that this species is phylogenetically placed in the root of the 'Peniophorales' clade. In addition, ecological and physiological features of the species are provided.

A field trial to assess the ability of Chondrostereum purpureum to limit the resprouting of cut red alder (Alnus rubra) was established in British Columbia, Canada. Overall, 92% of stumps inoculated with C. purpureum died in the first year and 100% were dead by the second year. C. purpureum was thus as effective as the herbicide treatments Carbopaste and liquid glyphosate (12% Vision) and reduced resprouts to zero. Naturally occurring C. purpureum spores colonized about 40% of untreated cut stumps and about 20% of the stumps treated with chemical herbicides. The peak production of C. purpureum basidiocarps occurred about 22 months after the trial was established, with C. purpureum on 66% of treated stumps. The following year, the basidiocarps persisted on 23% of treated stumps. About 600 young red alder trees were cut to act as spore traps 2 years after trial establishment, when the most C. purpureum basidiocarps were present on treated stumps in the trial. These spore-trap trees were subsequently sampled, and PCR markers were used to verify and characterize 43 dikaryotic C. purpureum individuals, none of which were identified as the released isolate 2139. There was little difference in average band-sharing with the applied isolate among pre-trial (37% average) and spore-trap (38% average) populations. There was therefore no evidence that the C. purpureum strain applied inundatively to stumps in this trial was detectable on nontarget trees in the local area or had any measurable impact on the local C. purpureum population.

Assessment of genetic and phenotypic diversity is necessary to confidently distinguish genotypes of Pleurotus eryngii when seeking traits of interest and to identify strains with high yield potential. We studied 154 strains from Italy for quantitative (shape, size and yield), qualitative (colour, malformations and growing behaviour), and molecular (RAPD and minisatellite) traits. This population consisted of isolates mostly belonging to P. eryngii var. eryngii, var. ferulae or var. nebrodensis, from different regions of Italy. A replicated cultivation trial, with three blocks and three replicates for each strain within the block, was used as an experimental design to calculate trait estimates. Significant differences were observed between strains for basidiome number and weight, while no significant differentiation for quantitative morphological traits was observed between geographical origins and taxonomic groups. Qualitative morphological traits were efficient in differentiating isolates of P. eryngii var. nebrodensis. On average, yield per strain (basidiome weight) was correlated more with basidiome number than with size. The most stable yield traits were basidiome number and weight per strain. An average heritability of 0.31 was estimated for yield related traits. A significant difference between var. ferulae and var. eryngii populations was detected for basidiome production measured as 'average harvest time'. Molecular markers showed a high level of heterogeneity within populations and a low, but significant, degree of differentiation among populations defined a priori. No population-specific marker was detected and the differential pattern of variation between vars. ferulae and eryngii was due to frequency-dependent alleles. The nebrodensis type was more differentiated from var. eryngii than from var. ferulae using either molecular or qualitative morphological traits.

Thirty South American species of Cortinarius belonging to the subgenera Telamonia, Dermocybe, Myxacium, Phlegmacium, and Cystogenes were studied using an integrated approach that included morphological, anatomical, and ultrastructural data, and also molecular phylogenetic analysis of nuclear rDNA sequences. The micromorphology of the basidiomes was studied by light microscopy, and the principal structures were illustrated by line drawings. Basidiospore ornamentation was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Nuclear internal transcribed spacers (ITS, including the 5.8S gene) and the rDNA coding for the D1/D2 domains of the large ribosomal subunit (LSU) were sequenced and analysed using a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo method to estimate phylogenetic relationships between the studied Cortinarius species. Morphology and anatomy of the pileus surface and basidiome pigmentation appeared to be the most useful characters to delimit some natural groups, whereas microcharacters related to the structure of pileus context, hymenophoral and stipe trama were of little taxonomic value. Basidiospore morphology and cheilocystidia seem to be taxonomically relevant at the species level. The following five infrageneric groups were supported by the morphological, chemical and molecular data: (1) Telamonia characterized by wide hyaline hyphae of the veil and by small basidiomes; (2) Dermocybe spp. with an epicutis as the most external layer of the pileus, and skyrin and hypericin pigments; (3) Dermocybe spp. with a thin viscid layer on the pileus, and endocrocin and dermolutein pigments; (4) Phlegmacium spp. characterized by a long and radicating stipe; and (5) Phlegmacium spp. that overlap in some macrocharacters with Telamonia species. Our analyses suggest that classification concepts based mainly on macromorphological characters are likely to lead to artificial grouping, whereas certain microscopical and chemical characters seem to be useful in constructing a more natural classification system for Cortinarius.

The behaviour of Suillia flies on basidiocarps of Hebeloma radicosum was studied in central Japan. Hebeloma radico-sum is a peculiar fungus that fruits only on talpid mole middens, near the moles' nests. All insect species around selected basidiocarps of this mushroom species were observed, their behaviour studied, and identified in late October to early November 1992, and again briefly in 2001. During these periods, Suillia flies were seen on the basidiocarps, while other insect species were rarely observed. Usually one Suillia fly (male) occupied one basidio-carp and prevented other conspecifics from occupying the same basidiocarp. This appeared to be pre-mating territorial behaviour. Larval stages of Suillia are known to be mycophagous, and the territorial behaviour is presumably performed to defend oviposition sites. This is the first report from Asia on ecological aspects of Suillia flies.

Eucalyptus globulus is the most widely planted temperate eucalypt in regions of Mediterranean climate. Plantations in Western Australia (WA) are common on sandy soils where fertilization is necessary (especially N, P, K and Cu) to sustain high growth rates. Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are common in these plantations and are probably ecologically important in nutrient cycling. Whether fertilization with phosphorus (P) could alter fungal dynamics in these plantations is investigated in this study. Three rates of P (nil, low = 100 kg P ha-1 and high = 1000 kg P ha-1), including basal nutrients, were applied to a 4-years-old E. globulus plantation in WA and the following measured over a 2 years period: fungal diversity, fungal biomass, soil hyphal production, tree biomass, litter production, and accumulation of N, P, K and Cu in the fungal and tree components. The addition of P reduced the number of basidiocarps by 5 (low P)-14% (high P), basidiocarp and soil hyphal biomass by 26-40% and 29-44%, respectively, without affecting above-ground ECM fungal diversity, species of Laccaria, Pisolithus and Scleroderma. There was no response in whole tree biomass or litterfall to P, but low P increased fine root biomass in ingrowth cores at 6 months to 364 kg ha-1. Accumulation of N, P, K and Cu generally declined in fungi and litterfall with P, but increased in tree biomass (except N and Cu). The total nutrient load was in the order: above-ground tree > soil hyphae > below-ground tree > litter > fine root > basidiocarp. The combined nutrient pool in the fungal component was approximately 10% of that in the tree. This illustrates the potential significance of ECM fungi in immobilizing P and other nutrients, and in their subsequent cycling during fungal decomposition in plantations. The impact of P on fungal dynamics therefore requires consideration when applying fertilizers in eucalypt plantations.

Five native mycoparasitic strains of Clonostachys rosea and three of Trichoderma spp. were isolated from healthy cocoa tissue or basidiocarps of Crinipellis perniciosa using a baiting technique. They were compared singly or in combination with the commercial biocontrol agent Trichoderma virens (SoilGuard) for their potential to control three cocoa pod diseases: moniliasis, caused by Moniliophthora roreri; witches' broom, caused by C. perniciosa; and black pod, caused by Phytophthora palmivora. All isolates except Trichoderma T-1 inhibited basidiocarp formation of C. perniciosa under controlled conditions. The remaining isolates except Trichoderma T-3 reduced vegetative broom formation in a seedling bioassay. Clonostachys rosea G-3 and Trichoderma strains T-2 and T-3 significantly reduced symptoms caused by M. roreri in a seedling bioassay. Host-range studies identified P. palmivora as most susceptible to mycoparasitism and M. roreri as most resistant; C. perniciosa was intermediate. Different degrees of susceptibility were discovered at the pathogen strain level, especially for P. palmivora. However, broad host-range mycoparasites which attacked all three pathogen species were identified. Under field conditions, all selected treatments except a combination of C. rosea G-2 + G-3 reduced moniliasis, the main disease, significantly by 14.6–24.9% as compared with optimized, cultural control alone. No significant reduction of witches' broom or black pod was achieved but a combination of five C. rosea strains (G-1, G-2, G-3, G-4 + G-5) performed consistently best against all three diseases simultaneously. Yield increased by 16.7% and net returns by 24%. Control of moniliasis and yield were positively correlated to the number of mycoparasites in the inoculum. The results suggest that simultaneous biocontrol of the three major cocoa pod diseases with mycoparasite mixtures is highly promising. Future development strategies are discussed.

Basidiomes of Amanita muscaria were collected from sites in three 30-36-yr-old Pinus radiata plantations in New South Wales, Australia. Following DNA extraction from basidiome stipes, inter-simple sequence repeat PCR using the degenerate primers 5’DHB(CGA) 5 and 5’DDB(CCA) 5 , was used to identify the mycelial genotypes from which basidiomes arose. Each site was found to contain 8-10 A. muscaria genotypes, with six genotypes common to all three sites and one common to two sites. The presence of common genotypes at the three sites is taken to indicate that they were introduced as vegetative inocula when seedlings were planted and have persisted for

Basidiomes of a Pisolithus species were collected from a ca 2500 m2 Australian sclerophyll forest site during 1997 and 1999 and of a second Pisolithus species from a further ca 150 m2 site during 1999. Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) PCR was conducted on DNA extracted from each basidiome using the primers 5’BDB(ACA)5, 5’DDB(CCA)5 and 5’DHB(CGA)5. Thirty-seven genotypes of Pisolithus species I were detected at the North Wilberforce site, with eight genotypes present during both 1997 and 1999. All other genotypes were observed during only one year. Mapping genotype distribution according to location of basidiome collection at the site suggested that most genotypes were present as small ( 4.0 m2) genets (including one ca 120 m2 genet) were also present. All Pisolithus species II basidiomes at the North Turramurra site were of a common genotype, suggesting the presence of a single large (ca 69 m2) below-ground mycelial genet of this taxon at the site. Both Pisolithus species thus appear to produce large long-lived soil-borne mycelia, but establishment of large genets may be restricted under some circumstances.

The ontogeny of the fruit bodies of Mycena stylobates was studied by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The ontogeny was divided into two phases: first the primordium with all the structures of the mature fruit body was established, then the primordial stipe elongated rapidly and the exposed hymenium started producing spores immediately. The first detected stage of fruit body formation was an irregularly arranged hyphal structure within the substrate colonized. After the rupture of the surface of the substrate, the primordium established on the surface. Soon a layer of wrapping hyphae was differentiated, which covered the complete primordium. The structures of the stipe and the cap developed synchronously. The developing stipe, cap and basal disc together formed a secondary ring-like cavity, in which the development of the hymenophore took place. The lower side of the cap was covered by a layer of degenerated hyphae. The development of the hymenophore started with a number of small alveolae on the lower side of the cap, which were covered with a hymenophoral palisade. The margins of these alveolae formed the primary lamellae, which in the first stage of their development were covered by a layer of degenerated hyphae. The hymenophoral palisade spread from the developing alveolae to the lamellar edge; the edge of the primary lamellae was forked in the early stages. Secondary lamellae were formed by the down folding of ridges from the lower side of the cap. In contrast to the primary lamellae, they were covered with hymenophoral palisade from the beginning. Spore production started immediately after the elongation of the stipe. These results were compared with other known modes of ontogeny within the Agaricales and some comments on the terminology used for the description of basidiome morphogenesis are made.

The Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History has unusual boxes which were made by the Inuit of Alaska in the late 1800s to hold the ashes of Phellinus igniarius basidiocarps. The fungus was burned and the ashes mixed with tobacco to give it a ‘powerful kick’. Museum collections of P. igniarius indicate that its use by Native Americans as a masticatory or for smoking purposes was widespread across North America.