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This paper presents the results of a palynological investigation of the sands from upper Eocene (Priabonian) epicontinental marine strata at Łukowa, SE Poland. This locality represents an isolated spot of upper Eocene strata in the southern part of epicontinental Poland due to later uplift and erosion of this area. The sands studied yielded a well-preserved palynoflora, providing information about palaeovegetation and palaeoclimate after the Early Eocene Climate Optimum. During the study a total of 94 fossil species of palynomorphs were identified. The results indicate that the vicinity of the sedimentary basin was covered by vegetation with a significant portion of thermophilous taxa and containing many elements with East Asian affinities. The plant communities were composed of Platanus, Platycarya, Engelhardioideae, members of the Hamamelidaceae, Sapotaceae, Fabaceae, Oleaceae, Fagaceae (probably evergreen Quercus and Castanoideae), and Betulaceae families, as well as Salix, Carya, and others. Members of the Pinaceae family and Sciadopitys were components of coniferous or mixed forests. Taxodium, and presumably Glyptostrobus, together with Nyssa, might have covered areas with a higher groundwater level. The pollen of Milfordia and Aglaoreidia cyclops can probably be considered as representing marsh/freshwater vegetation. Cryptogams are represented mainly by ferns (including members of the Lygodiaceae and Schizaeaceae, probably as well as Gleicheniaceae and Cyatheaceae families) and Lycopodiaceae (including Lycopodiella). The presence of frequent pollen and spores of the genera presently growing under tropical and subtropical climatic conditions and the presence of several taxa characteristic for swamps indicate that the climate during deposition of the sediments studied was warm and humid. The mean annual temperature of 17.2–23.1 °C was estimated on the basis of Coexistence Approach method.

Analysis of pollen and macroremains from the Mazovian/Holsteinian interglacial in the Nowiny Żukowskie succession enabled the identification of numerous climatic indicators. The applied indicator-species method allowed for a detailed description of climatic changes, i.e. warmings and coolings that occurred in this interglacial. The determined ranges of temperatures that prevailed in particular periods provide a basis for an assumption that it was probably the warmest interglacial of the Pleistocene. The estimated temperature of the warmest month during the climatic optimum (Abies–Carpinus period) may have been 2–4 C° higher than in the warmest period of the Holocene. Moreover, numerous changes in humidity, evidenced by frequent oscillations from oceanic to continental climate, are particularly important. The cool periods are generally marked by the presence of Betula nana, Selaginella selaginoides and S. helvetica, heliophytes such as Helianthemum nummularium, and shrubs of Ephedra and Hippophae rhamnoides. The warmest period is documented by the occurrence of thermophylous trees, e.g. Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Juglans, shrubs, e.g. Buxus sempervirens and Vitis sylvestris, as well as Hedera helix, Viscum, and aquatic plants, e.g. Brasenia borysthenica.

The pollen diagram from the Kobyle Jezioro raised bog, situated in the source area of the Tanew River in the Roztocze region, covers the whole Neoholocene. The deposit thickness (about 3.5 m) has permitted high resolution pollen, peat (including macrofossils) and lithology analyses. Vegetational and palaeoenvironmental changes in this part of the Roztocze were recorded in pollen spectra and organic deposits. Palynological evidence shows the typical Neoholocene succession, which corresponds with the phenomena described from central Europe: from mixed deciduous forests at the decline of the climatic optimum, through hornbeam- and beech-dominated forests to pine forests. Peat accumulation in the Kobyle Jezioro peat-bog started during increased climatic humidity at the beginning of the Subboreal, and originally a fen peat was formed. Raised bog peat layers make up the uppermost 80 cm of the deposit. Within the fen deposits can be found layers of transitional peat, indicating short-term episodes of water deficiency in the early Subboreal phase (short-term climatic dryness) and towards its end (drainage of the bog resulting from the lowering of the groundwater table in the source area of the Tanew River). The growth of the raised bog started at the beginning of the climate deterioration in the Little Ice Age, and the unstable climatic conditions are reflected in the numerous periodical mineral (aeolian) material supplies in the developing ombrogenic bog. The accumulation of the younger section of transitional and raised peats during the Little Ice Age reflects the local hydrological changes in the source area of the Tanew River.

Here, for the first time in SE Poland, we document the long-term development of a rich fen and assess its sensitivity to climate change and human impacts over the last ca. 3500 years. Our results are based on a high-resolution, continuous plant macrofossil remains, mollusc and pollen record, complemented by geochemical, mineral magnetic and physical characterisation, and radiocarbon dating from Bagno Serebryskie rich fen located in SE Poland. Based on the palaeoecological data we distinguished five stages of wet habitat conditions: 5000–3300, 2800–2150, 1600–1100, 750–230, 150–10 cal yr BP and five dry periods at ca. 3300–2800, 2150–1600, 1100–750, 230–150, 10 to − 64 cal yr BP. The pollen and geochemistry records, particularly Pb, show that the first human activity in the study area occurred ca. 3200 cal yr BP and increased markedly from 500 cal yr BP affecting local plant development including the population size of Cladium mariscus. Our study has shown that despite human impact (drainage, fire), Bagno Serebryskie peatland has hosted rare, presently protected species, such as Cladium mariscus for hundreds of years. We conclude that, in common with ombrotrophic bogs, rich fen ecosystems can provide a reliable source of palaeoclimatic and palaeohydrological data. Our study also shows that a large peatland (376 ha) can be as sensitive a palaeohydrological archive as smaller mires.

Urban green areas, due to their high plant diversity, can be supportive as floral resources (nectar and/or pollen) to wild and managed pollinating insects. This research aims towards understanding the contribution of ornamental ground cover perennials as a food source for urban pollinators. We compare floral phenology and abundance, nectar and pollen production, and insect visitation to flowers of Geranium macrorrhizum, G. platypetalum and G. sanguineum, planted in the botanical garden of Lublin, SE Poland. The investigation revealed that the studied hardy geraniums exhibit many features valuable for pollinators, including large floral display (G. macrorrhizum and G. platypetalum), extended flowering period (G. sanguineum) and ample nectar and pollen reward (G. macrorrhizum). They can supply urban pollinators with a high quality food during spring and early summer time, i.e. the period of high food demand by many bee species. Moreover, hardy geraniums might be valuable plants for urban beekeeping as they are eagerly visited by honeybees. The investigated ground cover plants could therefore be considered in future city plantings.

Numerous abiotic factors have an important impact on the phenology of woody plants with temperature as the main driver of their development. Furthermore, the biological factors connected with phenotypic plasticity and genetic heterogeneity might be the cause of differentiation in phenological response to abiotic factors. As objects of our study, we chose black alder and silver birch trees. The main aims of the study were to demonstrate the spatial and temporal diversity in the timing of Alnus glutinosa and Betula pendula pollination as well as to identify factors affecting these variations. We focused on abiotic factors such as thermal conditions: air and surface temperatures, within and between population variability. Phenological observations were carried out in Rzeszow (SE Poland) in a period of four years at over a dozen locations. Stands differed in their thermal conditions and prevalent land use types. The pollination pattern in the study area was presented against the background of local thermal conditions which were described by Land Surface Temperature (LST) and maximum daily air temperature. LST was estimated with a single-channel algorithm using satellite images obtained from Landsat 7 and 8. Our results showed great spatial and temporal diversity in the pollination pattern in the study area. Year-to-year variations in the B. pendula pollination pattern were less pronounced than in the case of A. glutinosa. The pollination pattern was strongly influenced by temperature before and during pollination. In the study area, the variability of LST was greater than that of air temperature but the relationships between the timing of pollination phenophases and LST or land use types were weak. It was observed that the same sites were similar in their pollination pattern − the timing of phenophases was ‘accelerated’ or ‘delayed’ during the whole study period. The same individuals were the first or the last that began to pollinate independently of the year. We concluded that despite the impact of temperature on A. glutinosa and B. pendula development, the phenotype of an individual tree might be as important for phenological variability as local climate.

Invasive plants are known to have significant impacts on habitat structure and abiotic properties of the soil, and can noticeably modify soil animal community composition, diversity and function. We studied the effects of environmental change induced by an intercontinental, exotic invasive plant, Solidago gigantea L., on the resident Collembola and Protura communities at the species level, abundance of the soil mesofaunal communities at a coarse taxonomic level (Collembola, Protura, Oribatida, Gamasida, Actinedida) and abundance of the major trophic guilds (detritivores and predators). This research was conducted in an extended complex of riparian Molinia meadows in the upper Vistula drainage basin, SE Poland. Soil properties and soil mesofaunal communities were compared between Molinia meadow patches in well-established S. gigantea-invaded sites (about 20 years old) and uninvaded patches of Molinia meadows. Our results showed significant invader effects on soil properties such as pH. Collembola communitiy composition, in contrast to Protura communities, were significantly different between invaded vs. uninvaded meadows. Soil mesofaunal communities as measured by abundance of the major taxa were not altered, and relative abundance of detritivores and predators remained the same. The study shows that observed changes in soil properties induced by invasive plants can have a moderate effect on soil mesofaunal diversity and structure, primarily with regard to Collembola community composition, and a weak effect on modifications of the trophic structure.

Canopy gaps produced by natural disturbances are an important source of structural and functional heterogeneity within forest ecosystems. However, the effect of natural, small-scale canopy gaps, caused by the mortality of a single tree or a group of trees, on bird assemblages has not been adequately addressed in temperate deciduous forests. We studied the effects of small-scale canopy gaps on the breeding birds of old-growth deciduous forests in the Carpathians (SE Poland). Our hypothesis was that such small gaps and the adjacent closed-canopy forest would differ in bird richness, diversity and relative abundance. Breeding bird assemblages were surveyed using point counts in 30 canopy gaps (mean area 301 m2 ± 228 SD, range: 37–970 m2) and in 30 control plots situated in the adjacent closed-canopy forest. The species richness, diversity and relative abundance of birds were significantly higher in the gaps than in the control plots and were correlated with the number of large snags. Collared Flycatcher Ficedula albicollis and White-backed Woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos occurred more frequently in the gaps than in the control plots. Eurasian Treecreeper Certhia familiaris, Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla, Song Thrush Turdus philomelos and Eurasian Nuthatch Sitta europaea were more abundant in the gaps than in the control plots. The species richness of cavity- and ground-nesters was higher and these birds were more abundant in the gaps than in the control plots. The presence/absence of a gap and the number of large snags recorded in it explained 35.4% and 52.7% of the deviance in the total number of species and the total number of individual birds, respectively. Our results indicate that even small-scale canopy gaps, in combination with the large snags recorded in them resulting from the death of a single tree or group of trees, affect bird assemblages in deciduous forests as measured by the occurrence or abundance of individual species or community indices. We suggest that treefall gaps, which are heterogeneous structures, mediate the spatial distribution of bird territories within a stand and are crucial for the biodiversity of temperate deciduous forests.

In the face of the intensifying process of urbanization and the increased incidence of pollen allergies among urban residents, there is still a need to continuously monitor the airborne concentration of allergenic plant pollen. Urban green spaces (UGS) are a desirable element of the urban fabric and necessary for the proper functioning of cities, but they are a rich source of allergenic pollen that may pose a certain risk to people visiting them. The main aim of this study was to analyse the airborne allergenic pollen content in parks of different types relative to a reference point located on the roof of a building. Moreover, this study investigated the relationship between tree canopy volume and the number of recorded airborne pollen grains (SPIn- Seasonal Pollen Integral), and these parameters were compared with the potential impact of vegetation in the parks studied through the Index of Urban Green Zones Allergenicity (IUGZA). Aerobiological monitoring was carried out in Rzeszow, SE Poland in 2016. A volumetric Hirst-type device was used. The pollen seasons of many taxa largely overlapped at each site where the monitoring was carried out, but the concentration values clearly differed. Tree pollen concentration values were not dependent on total canopy volume, and the greatest disproportions were found for Acer, Betula, Quercus, and Tilia pollen. This may be due to the fact that a solitary tree produces more pollen than a tree growing near others of the same species. The downtown park, surrounded by densely built-up areas, exhibited the highest allergenic potential, and the concentration of pollen, in particular tree pollen, was highest there. It is undesirable to plant hedges of allergenic plants, as they are a rich local source of pollen. Aerobiological monitoring carried out in urban parks provides information about the real threat of allergenic pollen to park visitors.

Pollinator decline is a global threat with serious consequences to biodiversity. Mosaic structure of urban habitats and greenery areas are regarded beneficial for insects. However, for proper ‘pollinator-friendly’ management of urban areas, detailed information on floral reward offered by particular plant species is required. In this paper floral rewards of six ornamental Lonicera species (Caprifoliaceae), growing in the city of Lublin, SE Poland, were investigated. In this temperate zone, the investigated Lonicera species bloomed during May-June or May-October and could be considered as valuable food resources for pollinating insects. The mean amount of nectar sugars per shrub ranged 8.6–66.3 g (L. caprifolium - L. maackii, respectively). The mean pollen yield was 2.1–110.1 g per shrub (L. xylosteum – L. maackii, respectively). Due to considerable differences in corolla depth, Lonicera species attracted diverse groups of insect visitors, i.e. short-corolla species represented morning pattern of flower opening and attracted mainly honey bees and bumble bees, while long-corolla species opened in the evening and lured Apoidea, butterflies (mainly hawkmoths), and sporadically wasps, syrphid flies and beetles. Two high sugar- and pollen-yielding species, L. maackii and L. tatarica, are however regarded invasive in some geographical areas. Therefore, the spread of the species should be carefully monitored in urban green areas.

Owing to the extensive development of road networks, millions of animals are killed annually. This impact on the natural environment has been questioned: is there a selection of victims in the car collisions? and do road-kills, as do predators, influence a population by eliminating individuals in poor condition? We compared road-killed individuals to those killed by predators in SE Poland in three bird species: Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella, Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica, and Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs. We applied ptilochronology, in which the width of feather growth bars represents an individual’s relative nutritional condition. Our results show that the analyzed species were in significantly better body condition than those killed by raptors. Our study does not concur with previous studies which concluded that weaker individuals are more vulnerable on the road. Raptors select prey in poor condition, but road-killed individuals are in significantly better condition, so apparently road-kill results in the random elimination of healthy individuals. The conservation implications of this study are far-reaching; future road construction and safety regulations must take wildlife into consideration. If these human-created habitats are killing a significant proportion of the healthier part of natural populations in a non-selective manner, this could result in situations where fragmented populations could be driven to a critical stage, and/or the situation of declining or endangered populations worsened further.

The increasing spread of invasive alien plants has changed biodiversity throughout the world. To date research in this area has focused on how invasive plant species affect pollinator behaviour, but there is a lack of data on the impact that alien plant species have on wild pollinator populations. Since their introduction in the 19th century, and rapid spread after the 1950s, alien goldenrods (Solidago canadensis, Solidago gigantea) have been among the most successful invasive plant species in Europe. We studied the effects of goldenrods on wild pollinator communities in SE Poland. The abundance, species richness and diversity of wild bees, hoverflies and butterflies were compared between wet meadows invaded by goldenrod (10 transects) and non-invaded controls (10 transects). Furthermore, we compared the plant diversity and average cover between the two groups of sites. Invasion of goldenrods had a very strong negative effect on wild pollinator diversity as well as abundance. Plant diversity and average cover were also negatively affected by goldenrod invasion. Wild pollinators were grouped according to their nesting and food specialization, but none were resistant to the invasion, indicating that introduced goldenrod may affect the entire wild pollinator community. Our study emphasises the urgent need to develop specific protection plans for wild pollinators in habitats threatened by foreign plants and we call for the introduction of programs to stop the invasion of goldenrod not only in Poland, but also on a continental scale.

Allolobophora carpathica is an earthworm species found in the Eastern Carpathian mountain region, but little information is available on its ecology. Field sampling in beech woodland of the Bieszczady National Park, SE Poland, found this species in soils with a pH of less than 5.0 and C:N ratios of 12 to 13. From sampling over 2 years, at 4 sites with differing sub-vegetation, a mean density of A. carpathica of 6.75 individuals m -2 with a biomass of 8.65 g.m -2 was recorded. The largest mature adults were in excess of 14.0 g but there were significant differences (p < 0.01) between sampling sites. Seasonal patterns of abundance were observed.To obtain more data on the growth and breeding biology of this species, specimens were collected from the field, taken to laboratories and maintained in mesocosms under controlled environmental conditions. Cocoon production was 0.88 cocoons per earthworm per month at 15°C, but under fluctuating temperature conditions (16 - 24°C) no cocoon production occurred. The mean cocoon biomass was 83 mg (n = 104) and incubation took 178 days at 15°C (n = 14), although hatchability was low (22%) under these conditions. Growth from the hatchling stage, (mean mass 86 mg; n = 18), to maturity (c. 8.5 g) took 8 - 12 months at 12°C.