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Eggs of Trichosomoides crassicauda were collected from rat urine on filter paper and placed in capsules covered with Millipore filter paper. When the capsules were fed to rats and either recovered from the feces or removed surgically from the large or small bowel, the eggs were hatched; but if removed while still in the stomach no hatching occurred. Hatching took place within the capsules when they were inserted directly into the small bowel (unless the bile duct was tied off), and when they were in a balloon connected to the small bowel; but no hatching occurred when the capsules were placed free in the peritoneal cavity or in a balloon connected directly to the bile duct. In vitro hatching within the capsules was produced at 37 °C with 0.1 N sodium bicarbonate and 0.03 N sodium dithionite equilibrated with 10% CO 2 to produce a pH of 7.4. Hatching dropped off with pH changes in either direction, but pH adjustment alone without the dithionite did not produce significant hatching.

1. 1. Levels of glucose, pyruvate and α-ketoglutarate were followed in whole blood of domestic animals (horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, rabbits, dogs and cats) and fowl. 2. 2. Glycaemia was assayed by the o-toluidine method 3. 3. α-Keto acids were determined by the 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone method and the single hydrazones were separated by paper-chromatography. 4. 4. Mean blood values for glucose and α-keto acids in individual species were tabulated.

IN A previous paper by Baker et al. (1957) the effects of feeding Nicarbazin to laying hens on the yolk quality of their eggs was described. Neither the nature of the damage to the yolk nor the mechanisms involved in causing the damage were known. Experiments were designed to study the possible mechanisms involved. MATERIALS AND METHODS Eggs were obtained from hens fed Nicarbazin. The scoring system used to estimate yolk damage was the same as described previously (Baker et al., 1957). Water uptake of the yolk was determined according to the method of Orru (1939). The intact yolk was dried on filter paper, placed in a tared beaker and covered with the experimental solution. The system was incubated at 37°C. for 3 hours, the fluid drained off and the last traces of solution removed with filter paper by rolling the yolk over the paper. It proved to be practically . . .

Data obtained from screening newborn babies for elevated blood phenylalanine levels by the widely used technique of using punched discs from blood-soaked filter paper coupled with an automated fluorometric procedure revealed a seasonal variation in “apparent” blood phenylalanine concentrations. The variation was shown to be related to variations in relative humidity. The more humid the surrounding atmosphere the more the blood spreads through the filter paper and the less will be contained in a punched disc. The need in certain instances for a more precise means of quantification is discussed.

Brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) eggs fertilized in clean water were incubated in bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) concentrations of 0, 0.5, 1, and 2% (v/v) in a continuous-flow system and exposure was continued with the sac fry for most of the yolk sac stage. In addition, sac fry first incubated in clean water were exposed after hatching to the same concentrations for 44 days. Percentage hatching was lower than in the control only in 2% BKME. In all the BKME concentrations, the newly hatched sac fry were shorter than the controls, and their heart rate was slower. All the sac fry in 2% BKME died within 3 weeks after the end of hatching. At the late yolk sac stage the sac fry in the other concentrations of BKME were shorter and less well developed than the controls. Their wet and dry weights were higher and their water content was lower because of retarded yolk absorption. Exposure commencing after hatching also caused retarded growth and development. In the sac fry exposed to BKME only after hatching, mortality increased with the concentration and all the sac fry in 2% BKME died within 4 weeks.

In a laboratory investigation fourhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis) were exposed for 5-9 months to wastewater from pine and birch lines from a bleached kraft pulp plant. This long-term exposure to bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) affected the hematology, the ion balance, and the vertebral structure. Decreased values for hematocrit and hemoglobin and a reduced red blood cell count, as well as increased levels of methemoglobin, indicated disturbances in the red blood cell status. The white blood cell picture was not significantly affected by the BKME exposure. Decreased levels of potassium and chloride ions in the blood plasma in some of the exposed fish suggest an impaired ability to maintain ion homeostasis. Elevated frequencies of vertebral deformations in fish exposed to BKME confirm previous observations of vertebral damage in feral fourhorn sculpin caught in the receiving body of water of the same bleached kraft pulp industry. Many of the parameters analyzed in this investigation may be used as health indicators in future laboratory and field studies on fish exposed to BKME.

Softwood chipping fines, a by-product of the paper manufacturing industry, was evaluated for its efficacy as poultry litter on a total of 1,200 broilers. There were no differences in 49-day body weights or feed conversion between broilers grown on softwood chipping fines and on pine shaving control litter. Broilers grown on chipping fines litter had 58% fewer breast downgrades and 64% more Grade A carcasses than those raised on pine shavings. High moisture level chipping fines litter treatments produced slightly elevated mortality, but overall mortality was low.

Roach (Rutilus rutilus) were exposed, along with their appropriate controls, to a simulated bleached kraft mill effluent (KME-Sa + CP) first for 38 days at a concentration of 0.035 X LC50 and then for 14 days at 0.07 X LC50. During the experiment, their tolerances to KME-Sa + CP were tested five times by measuring the 48-hr LC50 values. In addition, the growth of roach was monitored. At the end of the exposure, accumulation of [14C]pentachlorophenol in various parts of the fish (total PCP in water 15.6 micrograms/liter) was measured. When the fish were preexposed to KME-Sa + CP, the acute tolerance of this mixture in roach increased by 30-39%, but the response was abolished in 31 days. Fish growth remained unchanged during the experiment. Measurement of PCP accumulation revealed no difference in the absorption rate, but under steady-state conditions the degree of bioconcentration was 16% lower (P less than 0.02) in preexposed roach than in their unexposed controls. This difference was entirely accounted for in the head and visceral parts of the fish. Even when no final changes were noted in tolerance and growth rate of the fish, the authors suggest that the significantly lowered body burden implied acclimatizatory compensation under subchronic exposure of this xenobiotic.

The free amino acids in the diapausing egg of Teleogryllus commodus were determined during the course of its development from oviposition to eyespot by means of paper chromatography. A total of twenty amino acids were identified at diapause. Changes in the concentration of amino acids during diapause development at low temperature were compared with those that took place during the termination of diapause by treatment with ammonia. The most noteworthy change occurred in the level of glutamine, which showed a marked rise following both treatments. Exposure to an inefficient temperature for diapause termination, namely 23°C, led to only a small increase in glutamine. The only other amino acid that showed a substantial change during diapause termination was alanine, which gradually decreased in level. The significance of these changes, in relation to the process of termination of diapause, is discussed.

Quantitative paper chromatographic determinations of glycerol content in the haemolymph of adult P. brevicornis have revealed seasonal variations in the concentration of this substance. Mean glycerol concentrations in excess of 22 g% have been measured during winter with the values decreasing to less than 1 g% during spring and summer. Acclimation studies gave similar results. In the artificially warmed winter beetles glycerol content decreased to less than 1 g% within 36 hr at 20°C. Glycerol concentrations were closely correlated with the changing supercooling points and haemolymph freezing points in both the naturally acclimatized and laboratory acclimated specimens. Temperature preferences showed a positive correlation with changes in cold tolerance.

Ergot found growing on couch grass in Delaware and Franklin Counties in the central part of Ohio was found to contain above N. F. X limits in ergotoxine content, and below N. F. X limits in ergonovine content. It was also noted that part of the sample was infested with a small beetle-like insect. The infested portions assayed lower in alkaloid and fat content. Evidence was presented by paper chromatography to show the presence of a number of ergot alkaloids and lysergic acid.

One hundred White Leghorn hens in each of two experiments were divided into two groups based on lysozyme content (negative moving fraction at pH 8.5) of the thick egg white. Paper electrophoresis was used to index 260 pullets for experiment 1 and 100 pullets in experiment 2. Fifty birds producing eggs of the highest and 50 with the lowest lysozyme content were used for egg quality studies in each experiment. Data were obtained on an individual hen basis for interior quality of fresh eggs, in Haugh units (H.U.), quality loss during storage, egg weight, shell quality and percent solids of albumen and yolk. Haugh unit values of fresh eggs were similar for high and low lysozyme eggs in both experiments. Differences in shell quality, egg weight and solids content of albumen were not significantly different in either experiment. Quality losses during storage were significantly different in both experiments. Quality losses during storage were significantly (P Differences in solids content of egg yolks were statistically significant (P

Twenty goats, aged 7 months and weighing between 13 and 18 kg, were given diets containing 0, 20, 40 and 60% coffee pulp and hay ad libitum for 20 weeks. Metabolizable energy (ME) intake of the goats was estimated in vitro during 12- and 8-week periods and related to liveweight gain in a regression involving 40 sets of data. A maintenance requirement of 556 kJ ME kg−0.75 day−1 was calculated, which was similar to some reports in the literature but exceeded others by 20%. Less variable was energy cost of gain which was estimated at 27.9 kJ ME per g. Efficiency of utilization of ME for growth was 35.8%. Values reported here are useful for feeding Kenyan goats under confinement.

Experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of coffee pulp as a constituent of a feed used in the culture of common carp ( Cyprinus carpio L.) and catfish ( Clarias mossambicus Peters). The carp were fed two commercially prepared pelleted feeds, one with 30% coffee pulp, in an earthen pond. Daily growth increments were reduced from 1.65 g to 0.34 g when fed with coffee pulp. Catfish were tested in an earthen pond, in a floating cage and in concrete tanks under variable densities. In all cases, daily growth increments were reduced by 45% or more.

Twenty-day-old striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) larvae were exposed to a range of treated bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) concentrations from 0 to 20% effluent by volume (v/v) under continuous flow test conditins. The experimental test concentrations in the 2–20% BKME test aquaria had a BOD 5 which ranged from to 5 mg l −1 , TSS 12–17 mg l −1 , and true color 35–416 mg l −1 . Bleached kraft mill effluent did not kill larvae exposed to it for 20 days through metamorphosis to the juvenile stage. The BKME did not alter growth in length, weight or condition factor in larvae over the 20-day exposure period as determined by multiple regression analysis. A linear regression analysis on the dry weight data at Day 20 only, however, indicated a trend of decreasing weight with increasing BKME concentration. Effluent-exposed larvae also developed normally during the 20-day study. All individuals examined completed the transformation from postlarvae to juveniles by the age of 40 days.

The interactions of treated bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) and dissolved oxygen concentration (DO) on the survival of the embryo, fry, juvenile and adult stages of the sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus, were studied under continuous-flow 96 h bioassay conditions. Embryo survival was dependent on effluent concentration only and showed no interaction at nominal DO concentrations of 1.0, 3.0 and 5.0 mg l−1. Survival of the fry was related solely to DO concentration with no interaction with BKME concentrations up to 100%. Juvenile sheepshead minnows showed increased sensitivity to BKME at a nominal DO concentration of 1.0 mg l−1. Adult fish were not affected by BKME at any of the DO concentrations tested. This study shows that the acute toxicity of BKME effluent to sheepshead minnows is a function of the developmental stage of the organism and DO concentration in the receiving stream.

Digestibility of beet and cane molasses was tested in vivo with wether sheep at two levels of inclusion of molasses in the ration (15 and 30%) as well as in vitro with rumen fluid. In vivo, cane molasses was less digestible than beet molasses, irrespective of the level of inclusion in the ration. The level of inclusion of the molasses did not have a significant effect on the calculated organic matter digestibility of the products. Increasing the ratio of molasses to hay (or hay + sugar beet pulp) linearly increased in vitro OM digestibility of the mixtures irrespective of the molasses type tested. Digestibility in vitro of cane molasses was only slightly lower than that of beet molasses. Chemical characteristics of both molasses are discussed in relation to possible explanations for the differences between results obtained in vitro and in vivo.

Twenty-four male weanling African giant rats were allocated to four treatment groups in a 16-week trial. Their diets were based on (1) maize, (2) cassava peel, (3) cassava whole tuber and (4) cassava pulp. Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) content of diets was 0, 597, 150 and 110 mg/kg, respectively. Diets were isocaloric and isonitrogenous. Feed consumption was similar on all diets. Growth rate, feed efficiency and protein efficiency ratio were better ( P P

Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were examined for the presence of dehydroabietie acid after exposure to kraft mill effluent. Levels of 2 to 10 μg/g dehydroabietie acid on a whole fish wet weight basis were found in fish exposed to 3 to 18% effluent for 48 to 144 hours. Less than 1 μg/g dehydroabietie acid was found in control fish which had been acclimated in Nipigon Bay water for two weeks and no residue was detected in an unexposed fish. It is concluded that fish exposed to kraft mill effluent accumulate dehydroabietie acid to a level which is likely to result in sublethal toxic effects.

The effect of Balanites aegyptiaca as an anti-diabetic agent was investigated using adult albino rats. The rats were injected with alloxan to induce diabetes. Daily gain in body weight, daily food intake, food efficiency, serum protein, serum glutamic-oxalacetate transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvate transaminase (GPT) activities and liver body weight ratio were determined before and after 2, 10 and 20 days of alloxan injection. The addition of 10% whole or extracted pulp of Balanites aegyptiaca fruits at the expense of starch in the basal diet caused a considerable decrease in food intake and a gain in body weight and, consequently, food efficiency ratio, in the first 10 days compared with the negative control. In the second 10 days, rats fed on the basal diet, or the basal diet supplemented with 10% whole or extracted pulp, recovered their appetite for food and gained daily in body weight and food efficiency ratio. The liver body weight ratio was not significantly affected. The addition of whole or extracted pulp also caused a highly significant decrease in serum glucose level and serum protein and inhibited the activities of GOT and GPT in alloxanized rats.

Eight digestibility trials, carried out with wethers, demonstrated that dried sugar beet pulp is a highly digestible energy source for ruminants. Using 95 as value figure, the mean starch equivalent content of the eight different lots amounted to 63.2 (73.3 in the dry matter) this corresponds with approximately 90% of the value of rolled barley. Beef production trials were carried out with 779 young bulls (322 baby-beef bulls and 457 store bulls) fed ad libitum with complete dry rations containing, respectively, 50, 60, 70 or 95% dried sugar beet pulp pellets. Straw and water were always available. Soybean oil meal was added to the first three rations, to increase the protein content, while in the last ration 0.85% urea was incorporated, or a liquid supplement containing 9.5% urea was available in a small tank with lick-wheel. From the fattening experiments it can be concluded that dried sugar beet pulp is a palatable feedstuff which can be used as sole energy source for finishing bulls. Dried sugar beet pulp supplemented with urea, minerals, micro-elements and vitamins resulted in high performances, high quality carcasses and an acceptable feed cost price. The use of a liquid supplement besides dried sugar beet pulp gave satisfactory results but further studies concerning palatability will be needed.

The relationship was studied between length of incubation in a liquid synthetic medium, amount of bacterial growth, pH of the culture filtrate and tuberculin yield of a single strain, DT, of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. No simple relationship was found between the total crop of bacteria and the tuberculoprotein content of the culture filtrate. On the other hand, protein release and the pH of the culture filtrate were closely related. In each of two trials the bacterial crop increased rapidly during the early period of incubation, although maximum growth was not reached until 9 and 13 weeks respectively. In each of two trials the bacterial crop increased rapidly during the early period of 5 weeks incubation and then fell until the 10th week; a second rise occurred until the 13th week when the pH dropped again and levelled off slightly on the alkaline side of neutrality. The rate of increase in tuberculin yield was most rapid during the first 7 weeks of incubation. After this, the rate of increase slowed down but the yield was still rising after 18 weeks. It is concluded that for the large-scale production of mammalian tuberculin by the method used in these trials, it is profitable to incubate production cultures for 14 weeks or longer.

Groups of 3 castrated male pigs (45–50 kg), housed in metabolism crates, were offered basal diets alone or with increasing levels of addition of straw, oatfeed or sugar-beet pulp. The excretion of nitrogen in the faeces, expressed as a proportion of nitrogen intake, tended to increase as the level of fibre addition increased, the effect being significant (P Urinary nitrogen excretion, expressed in the same manner, tended to fall as more fibre was consumed, the effect being significant (P

Five experiments were conducted to investigate the dietary factors within the rumen environment which could contribute to changes in the degradation of barley straw. Degradation was measured by recording the losses of dry matter (DM) from samples of straw incubated in nylon bags in the rumen for various periods of time. Three sources of supplementary energy (sugar-beet pulp, citrus pulp and dried grass) and two sources of protein (soya-bean meal and fish meal) were investigated for their ability to increase degradation of straw when given as supplements to untreated straw. The untreated straw used in these experiments was adequately supplemented with rumen-degradable nitrogen, sulphur, vitamins and minerals. Unmolassed sugar-beet pulp and dried grass, when given at a level of 150 g kg−1 straw DM, increased both the rate and extent of degradation of straw DM. Citrus pulp and soya-bean meal had no effect on the degradation of straw, while fish meal appeared to have a small effect. It was concluded that in particular digestible cellulose and/or hemicellulose improved the conditions in the rumen for straw fibre degradation in animals given straw diets.

A supplementary feed containing 30% coffee pulp was evaluated for use in the culture of Tilapia aurea in El Salvador, Central America. A comparison of the coffee pulp feed with a feed containing all of the same ingredients except coffee pulp was made with T. aurea raised in 1.0-m 3 cages suspended in a fertilized earthen pond. Survival was high in all treatments and there was no significant difference in average weight gain between groups of fish receiving the two experimental feeds. Production trials were conducted in 100-m 2 fish pens and in 0.05-ha earthen ponds. Pen-raised fish receiving coffee pulp feed grew faster throughout the experiment, and total production was approximately twice that in control treatments. Highest production in pens was 1.25 kg/m 2 per year. Results of production pond trials using T. aurea at 9 000/ha and stocked with the piscivorous Cichlasoma managuense yielded an estimated 3 392 kg/ha per year in fed treatments and 2 049 kg/ha per year in controls. Low feed conversion (1.92) and low feed cost resulted in an increase in net annual earnings of $251.00/ha.

The normal diet of six healthy volunteers was supplemented by 21 g of dietary fiber from two different soybean seed fiber preparations, either a nonpurified and never-dried soya pulp A (39% dietary fiber) or a purified soya fiber B (79%), for 3 wk each. Mean daily fecal wet weight was increased by 19 and 38% in the fiber periods A and B as compared to a 2-wk control period (p less than 0.05). Stool frequency and transit time remained unchanged. Fecal fiber increased by 52% only during period B. Fecal calcium, magnesium, and iron were increased (p less than 0.05), mainly after higher intakes during both fiber periods. Excretion of neutral steroids remained unchanged, but their concentration was lowered (p less than 0.05). A 21% increase of fecal bile acids by fiber A was specifically due to deoxycholic acid (+32%, p less than 0.01). Oral glucose tolerance was slightly improved after period B. Neither fiber changed serum triglycerides, but fiber B increased low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol by 19% (p less than 0.01) and low-density lipoprotein-phospholipids by 16% (p less than 0.05). The ratio high-density/low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, however, did not change significantly. Thus, dietary fibers from soybean do not seem to contribute to the hypocholesterolemic effect of soya. The results of this study also demonstrate that two apparently similar dietary fibers, coming from a single source, can exert distinctly different metabolic effects.

Fresh artichoke by-product, pepper and cauliflower residues, dried tomato pulp and fresh or ensiled apple pomace were fed, together with alfalfa hay, to adult ewes in four diets including 20, 40, 60 and 80% of each by-product, and organic matter digestibility (OMD) was estimated by the regression and difference methods. The OMD of ensiled artichoke and pea haulms was also determined directly giving both by-products as a whole diet. The OMD varied linearly with the dietary level of inclusion of each by-product, except for diets including pepper residues, where digestibility was similar tothat of the alfalfa hay. The digestible organic matter (DOM) content (g kg −1 DM) of fresh artichoke, pea haulms, apple pomace, pepper and cauliflower residues and dried tomato pulp was estimated to be 750, 650, 847, 615, 679 and 449, respectively, and that of ensiled artichoke, pea haulms and apple pomace 669, 508 and 739, respectively. Dry matter disappearances after in vitro incubation with rumen liquor-pepsin or pepsin-cellulase solutions and after 24 as well as 48 h of in situ incubation were determined to study their usefulness as predictors of OMD compared with several chemical parameters. The most accurate predictions were obtained with the in situ method after 48 h of incubation ( r = 0.97; RSD = ± 3.03) followed by the rumen liquor-pepsin procedure ( r = 0.94; RSD = ± 4.62) and pepsin-cellulase bioassay ( r = 0.88; RSD = ± 6.09). Chemical parameters proved to be poor predictors of OMD for this sort of by-product (RSD ranged from ± 7.00 to ± 11.96).

A study was conducted to evaluate the protective capability of 10 commonly used 12-egg foam (F) and pulp (P) cartons when packed and shipped in 15-dozen wire or plastic baskets and 30-dozen fiberboard cases. The study included 42 truck shipments in seven states. Eggs were graded for shell damage in 8 large packing plants, 9 central distribution warehouses, and 11 retail supermarkets. Range of damage was greater among foam cartons than among pulp cartons, although damage rate differences between the two groups were generally minimal. Test cartons F1 (foam flattop) and F2 (foam posted) had significantly less total eggshell damage than three other cartons (two F and one P) when the effect of master container was not considered. When cartons were packed in 30-dozen cases, there was no significant difference in total eggshell damage rates between F and P; however, test carton F1 had significantly less total damage than four other cartons (two F and two P). When cartons were packed in 15-dozen baskets, however, eggs in the pulp group had significantly less total damage than eggs in the foam group, and test carton F2 had significantly less total eggshell damage than four other cartons (three F and one P). Throughout the study, cartons F1, F2, P1, and P2 consistently performed at or above average and did not differ significantly from each other.

The ability of vendace ( Coregonus albula L.) to avoid different concentrations of bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) was studied in the laboratory with fish pre-exposed to BKME for 1 week and non-pre-exposed fish. Pre-exposure to BKME in sublethal concentrations reduced the avoidance of BKME by vendace. Throughout the range of exposure concentrations (0.13–4.50 v/v%), pre-exposed fish tended to be observed less in the clean water than non-pre-exposed fish or even to prefer contaminated water. In field conditions, changes in behaviour might lead to a chain reaction: the fish come into contact with concentrations of BKME lower than the threshold level for avoidance and their threshold level increases gradually due to this exposure, which makes exposure to higher concentrations possible and weakens the ability to return to clean water. Desensitization caused by pre-exposure and long distances between pronounced BKME concentration differences in the field together makes it improbable that the vendace can show avoidance responses in the field. Analyses of the various waste-water samples support the conclusion that the most toxic components in BKME, resin acids and chlorophenols, are of minor importance to the avoidance reaction.

1. 1. Acclimatized specimens of Hydrobia ulvae show a linear increase in oxygen consumption with decreasing salinity. The quantity of amino acid tends to decrease with decreasing salinities. 2. 2. Specimens transferred to different salinities may show a temporary increase in oxygen consumption and α-alanine concentrations. The temporary increase in oxygen consumption appears to be a standard increment. The increase in α-alanine presumably reflects quantity of pyruvate, the respiratory substrate. 3. 3. The linear relationship of oxygen consumption to salinity in acclimatized animals is related to osmoregulation. The temporary, incremental increase in oxygen consumption may be related to the cyclical behavioural activity of the prosobranch mollusc H. ulvae under estuaraine conditions.

AS THE industry moves toward a program of non-storage eggs the year around, methods of preserving the quality of shell eggs during marketing becomes paramount. The use of oil treatment, carbon dioxide atmosphere, thermostabilization or plastic treatment has been suggested by various investigators (Evans and Carver, 1942; Sharp and Stewart, 1931; Funk, 1943; and Yushok and Romanoff, 1949, respectively). However, a direct comparison of the relative efficiency of these methods under varying seasonal and storage conditions has not been made. Flavor is one of the most important factors in consumer acceptability of shell eggs. Few preservation studies, however, have included flavor as a method of evaluation. Mallman and Davidson (1944) and Shenstone and Vickery (1957) reported that oil coatings did not retard the onset of stale flavors during storage. Sauter, Harns, Stadelman and McLaren (1954) found no significant differences in the flavor of fresh eggs produced in the different seasons.…

INTRODUCTION CHLORINATION of an entire poultry processing plant water system at 10, 20 and 45 parts per million chlorine was studied by Drewniak et al. (1954). Twenty parts per million chlorine significantly reduced the bacterial load on chicken carcasses prior to chilling. These results were confirmed by Patterson (1958), who sampled frozen birds produced in a plant using different levels of chlorination in the entire water supply. Without special precaution, however, long-term chlorination at this level can corrode steel, stainless steel, and brass currently used in poultry plant plumbing systems (Mercer and Somers, 1957). This factor makes whole-plant chlorination at 20 parts per million impractical in many areas without installing either deionizing systems to remove minerals and/or pH adjustment using sodium hydroxide. Ranken et al. (1965) and Barnes (1965) indicated that chlorination at 200 parts per million in the slush ice chilling of birds extends shelf-life slightly and reduces the…

The present paper proposes a new strategy, based on the use of a new healthy animal diet additive obtained from urban biowaste, to reduce the environmental impact from livestock production. The diet supplement is a water soluble biopolymer (SB) obtained from urban gardening wastes. The paper reports the results of a case study in which 35 days old rabbits were fed a conventional diet as control and with a test diet made up of the conventional diet and 0.05–1% SB. Urine and faeces were collected, stored for 18 days at room temperature to simulate farm storage, and the resulting gaseous emissions were analysed. The manure from the animals fed the 0.25% SB diet produced significantly lowest emissions (p

Nanotechnology has formed into a promising innovation throughout the years, with unimaginable potential to change horticulture and animal zones all-inclusive. The reason for this paper is to contemplate and break down the initiation design, level of coordinated effort, creators positioning in the field of nanotechnology in Animal science look into. This paper investigates the development example of this field during the years 2005 to May 2019 (15 years). The PubMed database has been utilized to recognize the job of Nanotechnology applications in the field of creature science. Absolutely, 502 articles gathered including examination, survey, and clinical preliminary were investigated, and the information is introduced in various table headings. Single-wrote papers with 48% of commitments have overwhelmed this field of research. US of America rules with huge commitments right now followed by England (26%). The dominant part of the productions was in the English language (99%) and simply 0.2% distributed in the Chinese. It was intriguing to note 56% of research articles were distributed right now 5% productions were the result of clinical preliminaries. Lotka's Law was tried utilizing opposite square law by the recipe: xn * yx = c, the estimations of the type n and the consistent c were registered; and Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) decency of-fit test was applied. The outcomes recommended that creator profitability dissemination anticipated in "Lotka's summed up converse square law" didn't affirm to nanotechnology inquire about in Animal Science. Be that as it may, the altered Lotka's Law by Pao discovered fitting the control. Results indicated Liu Z (15) and Cui, Daxiang (14) has altogether added to this field. From this examination, analysts, researchers, subject masters, understudies, overseers, strategy creators, academicians, Library and Information Science experts, and staff partners will be profited attributable to the logical and powerful examination.

This paper investigated whether a single Hormonal Growth Promotant (HGP) adjustment in the Meat Standards Australia (MSA) beef grading model adequately predicted consumer eating quality of beef from cattle treated with different HGP formulations. This paper used consumer sensory data from two experiments. In experiment one, a total of 300 steers were allocated to three treatments; control (CON-100-F), 100 day oestradiol only HGP (OES-100-F), or a combination of trenbolone acetate and oestradiol HGP (TBA+OES-100-F) and finished in a feedlot for 73 days. In experiment two, a total of 200 steers were allocated either control or 400 day oestradiol only HGP treatments and finished on pasture for 389 days. Steers were slaughtered by finishing regime and carcass traits recorded. The anterior and posterior portions of the m. longissimus lumborum (LL-A and LL-P, respectively) and m. gluteus medius (GM) were collected and aged for five or 35 days. Grilled meat samples were scored for tenderness, juiciness, liking of flavour and overall acceptability using untrained consumers. Sensory scores were weighted by 0.3. 0.1, 0.3 and 0.3, respectively and summed to calculate a meat quality (MQ4) score. Residual MQ4 scores were calculated (observed MQ4 minus the predicted MQ4 score). The MSA model accounts for varied impacts of different HGPs on eating quality through a single HGP adjustment, and indirect impacts on carcass traits. For the majority of the HGP treatment samples, the residual MQ4 scores were not different to zero (5/18), or were positive i.e. the MSA model under-predicted these samples (11/18). Under-prediction was predominately for 35 day aged (7/9) and GM HGP treatment samples (6/6) and was considered low, with the majority less than ±5 MQ4 units. Under-prediction could be considered as advantageous through providing an additional safeguard to protect the interests of the consumers, rather than if the model had over-predicted and resulted in a more negative eating quality experience than expected. Some over-prediction was observed in the CON-100-F and TBA+OES-100-F treatment samples, which may be due to factors such as genetic variation and/or production environment. Minimal bias was observed when residual MQ4 was regressed against predicted MQ4 for the range of feeding regimes, muscles, ageing periods and treatment groups. This study showed that a single HGP adjustment in the MSA beef grading model, combined with the indirect effects of the different HGP formulations on carcass traits, provided a reasonable prediction of meat eating quality for different HGP formulations.

In this paper, we report a study on the drying process of whole human blood drops on glass substrates. It was shown previously (Brutin et al., 2011) that some diseases can change the patterns in dried drops of blood, but the reason behind the differences has not been discussed. In this paper, we explain the physical reasons behind the differences in patterns analytically in a quantitative and detailed way. We have analysed samples of three groups: healthy adults, adults having thalassaemia, and infants with jaundice. We investigate the formation of large cracks in three groups and measure the length of cracks for the jaundice group and find a relation between the bilirubin level and the length of large cracks. Then we show that the height profile of the dried drops is different for the three groups. We also compare the dynamics of evaporation and pattern formation for the three groups. Finally we explain the differences based on different physical properties like volume fraction, height, and viscosity. We show that valuable information about blood composition as well as the paroxysm of the mentioned diseases can be extracted just by analysing the patterns formed in dried drops.

This is the third paper of the series about “Dynamics of algae growth and nutrients in experimental enclosures culturing bighead carp and common carp”. In this paper, phosphorus dynamics were investigated under the condition of culturing bighead carp and common carp with added fish food (nitrogen dynamics is discussed in the second paper because their behaviors are so different from each other). Nearly fifty days’ observation results indicated that the reservoir water was typical of “phosphorus limited” water, and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) was the main constituent of measured total phosphorus (TP). The presence of fish food resulted in significantly higher SRP, dissolved total phosphorus (DTP) and TP concentrations in contrast with the reservoir water. Moreover, continuous supply of fish food led to the decline of total nitrogen to total phosphorus (TN:TP) from more than 100 to less than 5. Variations in the ratio of TN to TP favored the growth of blue-green algae. Fish species affected phosphorus concentrations, and culturing bait-eating common carp contributed more to reducing the SRP, DTP and TP concentrations than culturing planktivorous bighead carp. 0.5%, 4.1% and 3.1% TP can be removed in enclosures with culturing bighead carp, common carp and mixed bighead carp and common carp, respectively. Abundant phosphorus in the fish culturing activities may be present as the uneaten food, algae cells, and within the water column and sediment, which should be taken into serious consideration for the target of future water eutrophication prevention and safety of the drinking water supply.

The implementation of gamete cryobanking in aquaculture may improve hatchery practices such as assisted reproduction and genetic selection of desired strains. This paper preliminarily investigated the technical feasibility of cryobanking semen of the common pandora Pagellus erythrinus, an important fishery resource in the Mediterranean area and a promising species for the diversification of productions. Post-thawing motility was evaluated in common pandora semen samples cryopreserved according to eight previously selected protocols and stored in liquid nitrogen for eight years. In order to mimic the practical use of long-term cryostored semen samples, the proportion of living sperm in which motility could be activated was evaluated, by computer-assisted analysis, on thawing and after 3 h of post-thawing incubation at 18 °C as biomarker of sperm viability. The assessed parameters were percentage of motile spermatozoa (TM), curvilinear velocity (VCL), lateral head displacement (ALH), beat-cross frequency (BCF) and dance (DNC). The cryostored sperm of the common pandora proved to have promising features. In fact, percentages of motile sperm higher than 40% were always obtained on thawing; moreover, the semen retained its activation ability in the times after thawing, showing no or slight alterations in the motility profile also when activated after 3 h of post-thawing incubation. The best post-thawing performances were recorded with the EG5%-based extender under the F1 curve (equilibration at 2 °C; freezing from +2 °C to −70 °C at 3.8 °C/min), that showed the highest percentages of motile cells (80 ± 3) and no significant alterations in any of the evaluated motility parameters, followed by the EG10% based extender under the F2 curve (equilibration/cooling from 20 °C to 2 °C at 1 °C/min; freezing from +2 °C to −150 °C at 23.3 °C/min). Such a post-thawing resistance of long-term cryostored samples, encourages further studies for the inclusion of the semen of the common pandora in cryobanks aimed at use in reproductive biotechnologies for aquaculture applications and as a model in laboratory research. Therefore, the present paper contributes to the implementation of semen cryobanking as a technological tool in support to aquaculture, using as a model a species of potential aquaculture interest. In addition, the creation of germplasm cryobanks for aquatic species comply with the EU ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of in Vivo Experiments) guidelines that promotes a coordinate use and sharing of biological samples from animal models in laboratory research.

In order to understand the effect of low temperature shock to Apostichopus japonicus , we measured the concentration of soluble proteins, soluble sugars and five ions (Ca 2 + , Mg 2 + , Na + , Cl − and NO) derived from different organs to evaluate the adaptive capacities and stress responses to mild temperature decrease (MTD, initial temperature was set at 14 °C and decreased from 8 °C to − 2 °C by step changes of 2 °C, temperature was decreased to each temperature through 24 h) and to rapid temperature decrease (ATD, step changes of 2 °C over 1.5 h) in the laboratory. Two commercial strains of A. japonicus , hybrid Shuiyuan No. 1 sea cucumbers (Ss) and Dalian local sea cucumbers (Ls), were used as test animals. In the MTD treatments, concentrations of soluble proteins and soluble sugars on the whole showed similar trends of an initial increase, a subsequent decrease and then an increase to a level similar to or higher than the initial level. Ca 2 + concentration increased to the maximum level at 4 °C and did not return to the original concentration. The concentrations of Mg 2 + and Cl − increased significantly to a higher level, which was maintained until the end of the experiment. However, the concentrations of Na + and NO showed an opposite trend: an initial decrease in concentration to a low concentration that was maintained until the end of the experiment. In contrast, in the ATD experiment, the concentration of soluble proteins, soluble sugars, Mg 2 + , NO and Na + showed a tendency for fluctuation or decrease. Only Ca 2 + and Cl − concentrations showed a rising trend. Earlier responses and faster homeostatic ability were observed for Ss individuals than for Ls individuals, indicating a greater cold tolerance. Such findings provide the basis for improving aquaculture techniques for A. japonicus , particularly for providing a new stress-resistant sea cucumber variety for A. japonicus culture in farm ponds. Statement of relevance The manuscript titled “Stress responses to mild and acute temperature decrease for two strains of sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus ” was finished by Junhao Ning, Yaqing Chang, Wei Liu, Jian Song, Weijie Zhang and Jun Ding, we all made contribution to this manuscript and agreed with the authors' sorting order. This paper is first submitted in your journal. Neither the entire paper nor any part of its content has been published or has been accepted elsewhere. It is not being submitted to any other journal. We believe the paper may be of particular interest to the readers of your journal because the study reports that: (1) a preliminary relationship between the changes of soluble proteins, soluble sugars and five biogenic ions in A. japonicus and cold stress is established in the study; (2) the turning point of stress reaction in A. japonicus when suffering low-temperature was found at 0 °C or at 2 °C; and (3) we provide a new stress-resistant sea cucumber variety for A. japonicus culture in farm ponds.

Although an extensive literature exists on the management of zoo animals, not all zoos have contributed in an equal way. This paper is the first retrospective account of black rhinoceros husbandry and breeding in Italian zoos. Considering the precarious status of wild and captive populations, it is hoped that the results presented in this paper may furnish additional insights that are necessary to resolve some management problems in zoos today.

This paper reports results on exposure to simulated weightlessness that leads to a rapid decrease in bone mineral density known as spaceflight osteopenia by evaluating the effectiveness of dietary supplementation with synbiotics to counteract the effects of skeletal unloading. Forty adult male rats were studied under four different conditions in a 2 × 2 factorial design with main effects of diet (synbiotic and control) and weight condition (unloaded and control). Hindlimb unloading was performed at all times for 14 days followed by 14 days of recovery (reambulation). The synbiotic diet contained probiotic strains Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactococcus lactis lactis and prebiotic fructooligosaccharide. This paper also reports on the development of a desktop three-point bending device to measure the mechanical strength of bones from rats subjected to simulated weightlessness. The importance of quantifying bone resistance to breakage is critical when examining the effectiveness of interventions against osteopenia resulting from skeletal unloading, such as astronauts experience, disuse or disease. Mechanical strength indices provide information beyond measures of bone density and microarchitecture that enhance the overall assessment of a treatment's potency. In this study we used a newly constructed three-point bending device to measure the mechanical strength of femur and tibia bones from hindlimb-unloaded rats fed an experimental synbiotic diet enriched with probiotics and fermentable fiber. Two calculated outputs for each sample were Young's modulus of elasticity and fracture stress. Bone major elements (calcium, magnesium, and phosphorous) were quantified using ICP-MS analysis. Hindlimb unloading was associated with a significant loss of strength in the femur, and with significant reductions in major bone elements. The synbiotic diet did not protect against these unloading effects. Tibia strength and major elements were not reduced by hindlimb unloading, as was the case for femur, but tibia bone strength was negatively affected by the synbiotic diet. Thus, unexpectedly, the synbiotic diet was associated with null or detrimental effects on bone strength.

Tail biting in pigs is a multi-factorial problem, and the early rearing environment has been proposed as a potential previously unidentified factor. The aim of this study was to test whether access to chewable material from birth to weaning reduces later tail biting. Undocked litters of 59 sows were allocated to two treatments. In the rope-and-paper treatment ( N =30), the farrowing pens were furnished from birth to weaning with 10 pieces of sisal rope and one plastic ball suspended on the wall, and the piglets were given newspaper and wood shavings twice a day. In the control treatment ( N =29), plastic ball and wood shavings were provided. The average group size was 11 piglets per pen. The piglets were weaned during week 4 after birth and transferred to growing pens, combining two or three litters from the same treatment to each pen, on average 18 pigs per pen. The growing pens were identical for both treatment groups: each had three pieces of sisal rope and a plastic chewing toy. Wood shavings were given twice a day. Behaviour was recorded on video during weeks 2, 3 and 9 after birth. Tail damage was scored during week 9. During weeks 2 and 3 after birth, oral-nasal manipulation of other piglets was less frequent in the rope-and-paper pens than in the controls ( P P P =0.001). During week 9, when both treatment groups had spent five weeks in identical post-weaning environments, oral-nasal manipulation of pen mates and objects no longer differed significantly between the treatment groups ( P >0.1), but there was a significant difference in tail damage. Severe tail damage (part of tail missing, or wounds with inflammation) had a mean prevalence of 9.8% in the pigs that had paper and ropes before weaning, and 32.1% in the controls ( P P =0.002). In undamaged tails, there was no significant difference between the treatment groups ( P >0.1). It is concluded that providing chewable materials in early life has promising potential for reducing the severity of later tail biting.

Tension banding castration of cattle is gaining favour because it is relatively simple to perform and is promoted by retailers of the banders as a humane castration method. Two experiments were conducted, under tropical conditions using Bos indicus bulls comparing tension banding (Band) and surgical (Surgical) castration of weaner (7–10 months old) and mature (22–25 months old) bulls with and without pain management (NSAID (ketoprofen) or saline injected intramuscularly immediately prior to castration). Welfare outcomes were assessed using a range of measures; this paper reports on some physiological, morbidity and productivity-related responses to augment the behavioural responses reported in an accompanying paper. Blood samples were taken on the day of castration (day 0) at the time of restraint (0 min) and 30 min (weaners) or 40 min (mature bulls), 2 h, and 7 h; and days 1, 2, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 post-castration. Plasmas from day 0 were assayed for cortisol, creatine kinase, total protein and packed cell volume. Plasmas from the other samples were assayed for cortisol and haptoglobin (plus the 0 min sample). Liveweights were recorded approximately weekly to 6 weeks and at 2 and 3 months post-castration. Castration sites were checked at these same times to 2 months post-castration to score the extent of healing and presence of sepsis. Cortisol concentrations (mean ± s.e. nmol/L) were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the Band (67 ± 4.5) compared with Surgical weaners (42 ± 4.5) at 2 h post-castration, but at 24 h post-castration were greater in the Surgical (43 ± 3.2) compared with the Band weaners (30 ± 3.2). The main effect of ketoprofen was on the cortisol concentrations of the mature Surgical bulls; concentrations were significantly reduced at 40 min (47 ± 7.2 vs. 71 ± 7.2 nmol/L for saline) and 2 h post-castration (24 ± 7.2, vs. 87 ± 7.2 nmol/L for saline). Ketoprofen, however, had no effect on the Band mature bulls, with their cortisol concentrations averaging 54 ± 5.1 nmol/L at 40 min and 92 ± 5.1 nmol/L at 2 h. Cortisol concentrations were also significantly elevated in the Band (83 ± 3.0 nmol/L) compared with Surgical mature bulls (57 ± 3.0 nmol/L) at weeks 2–4 post-castration. The timing of this elevation coincided with significantly elevated haptoglobin concentrations (mg/mL) in the Band bulls (2.97 ± 0.102 for mature bulls and 1.71 ± 0.025 for weaners, vs. 2.10 ± 0.102 and 1.45 ± 0.025 respectively for the Surgical treatment) and evidence of slow wound healing and sepsis in both the weaner (0.81 ± 0.089 not healed at week 4 for Band, 0.13 ± 0.078 for Surgical) and mature bulls (0.81 ± 0.090 at week 4 for Band, 0.38 ± 0.104 for Surgical). Overall, liveweight gains of both age groups were not affected by castration method. The findings of acute pain, chronic inflammation and possibly chronic pain in the mature bulls at least, together with poor wound healing in the Band bulls support behavioural findings reported in the accompanying paper and demonstrate that tension banding produces inferior welfare outcomes for weaner and mature bulls compared with surgical castration.

Tension-band castration of cattle is gaining favour because it is relatively simple to perform and is promoted by retailers of the devices as a humane castration method. Furthermore, retailers encourage delaying castration to exploit the superior growth rates of bulls compared with steers. Two experiments were conducted, under tropical conditions, comparing tension banding and surgical castration of weaner (7–10 months old) and mature (22–25 months old) Bos indicus bulls with and without pain management (ketoprofen or saline injected intramuscularly immediately prior to castration). Welfare outcomes were assessed using a wide range of measures; this paper reports on the behavioural responses of the bulls and an accompanying paper reports on other measures. Behavioural data were collected at intervals by direct observation and continuously via data loggers on the hind leg of the bulls to 4 weeks post-castration. Tension-banded bulls performed less movement in the crush/chute than the surgically castrated bulls during the procedures (weaner: 2.63 vs. 5.69, P < 0.001; mature: 1.00 vs. 5.94; P < 0.001 for tension-band and surgical castration, respectively), indicating that tension banding was less painful then surgical castration during conduct. To 1.5 h post-castration, tension-banded bulls performed significantly (all P < 0.05) more active behavioural responses indicative of pain compared with surgical castrates, e.g., percentage time walking forwards (weaner: 15.0% vs. 8.1%; mature: 22.3% vs. 15.1%), walking backwards (weaner: 4.3% vs. 1.4%; mature: 2.4% vs. 0.5%), numbers of tail movements (weaner: 21.9 vs. 1.4; mature: 51.5 vs. 39.4) and leg movements (weaner: 12.9 vs. 0.9; mature: 8.5 vs. 1.5), respectively. In contrast, surgically castrated bulls performed more immobile behaviours compared with tension-banded bulls (e.g., standing in mature bulls was 56.6% vs. 34.4%, respectively, P = 0.002). Ketoprofen administration appeared effective in moderating pain-related behaviours in the mature bulls from 1.5 to 3 h, e.g., reducing abnormal standing (0.0% vs. 7.7%, P = 0.009) and increasing feeding (12.7% vs. 0.0%, P = 0.048) in NSAID- and saline-treated bulls, respectively. There were few behavioural differences subsequent to 24 h post-castration, but some limited evidence of chronic pain (3–4 weeks post-castration) with both methods. Interpretation, however, was difficult from behaviours alone. Thus, tension banding is less painful than surgical castration during conduct of the procedures and pain-related behavioural responses differ with castration method (active restlessness in response to tension banding and minimisation of movement in response to surgical castration). Ketoprofen administered immediately prior to castration was somewhat effective in reducing pain, particularly in the mature bulls.

A meta-analysis was conducted to elucidate the factors affecting drinking water intake (DWI) in order to develop new DWI empricial predictive models for lactating dairy cows and to compare with existing models. A large dataset, containing 262 experimental diets from 75 experiments published in 65 peer-reviewed papers was built. Selected explanatory variables were grouped into animal (body weight (BW); BW0.75; milk yield), diet composition (dry matter; ash; sodium; potassium; crude protein (CP); neutral detergent fiber), dry matter intake (DMI) and environment (mean air temperature and relative humidity) inputs. To develop the predictive models, the dataset (peer-reviewed papers) was randomly divided into two subsets for statistical analyses. The first data subset was used to develop equations to predict DWI (41 peer-reviewed papers; 47 experiments; 157 experimental diets), and the second data subset was used to assess the adequacy of the predictive models (24 peer-reviewed papers; 28 experiments; 105 experimental diets). Ash was the main diet input affecting DWI in lactating dairy cows, while BW0.75 affected DWI more than milk yield. Use of dietary characteristics (DM, ash and CP) and DMI as inputs could be enough to predict DWI as accurately as more complete models. Dry matter intake as predictive variable does not improve DWI prediction in models with only animal (BW0.75 and milk yield) as input, but it substantially improves prediction of models without use of animal as input. Among the existing models evaluated, those developed from just one experiment (Castle and Thomas, 1975; Little and Shaw, 1978; Murphy et al., 1983; Stockdale and King, 1983; Dahlborn et al., 1998) had poor prediction quality. We proposed the use of two models (diet II and animal + diet models) that presented the lowest root mean square prediction error (RMSPE) to predict DWI in lactating dairy cows.

In insect, host-finding is initiated by selectively laying eggs in particular site, which is known as oviposition. Host preference in lyctines is determined by some features like vessel size, moisture and starch content of the targeted host. Limited information is available on the significance of diet quality other than starch towards oviposition ability and fecundity of the lyctines. This study discusses the effects of nutritional quality of diets on oviposition of Lyctus africanus after feeding with cellulose-, cellulose powder (CP) and alpha cellulose (AC), and wood-based diets. Oviposition test was conducted on quantitative ashless filter papers which served as oviposition sites. The filter papers had been impregnated with nutritive solution and water to attract females laying their eggs. Those oviposition sites were put separately into a plastic jar with 10 pairs of lyctines adult. Then the eggs number and survived adults after two weeks were observed. The results showed that lyctine adults emerged from the cellulose-based diets ovipositing more eggs significantly on nutritive solution- than water-impregnated filter papers. This result may confirm that starch and sugar are the vital nutrients for L. africanus which could attract adult females to lay their eggs. The cellulose-based diets, both CP- and AC-based diet, are likely to affect adult stage of L. africanus to be more fecund by laying more eggs on filter papers. Also, CP-based diet generated the adults with higher survivals after ovipositing the eggs on both nutritive content and water-impregnated filter paper. The diet composition, in the case of cellulose content, is thus suggested to influence the fecundity of the adult insects of L. africanus.

Multilevel modeling is considerably useful way to analyze hierarchical data sets. The main purpose of this paper is to apply multilevel analysis in animal science and also show that this modeling technique is appropriate to analyze this kind of data. Thus multilevel modeling technique is used to analyze the milk yield data which has hierarchical structures, sires nested within cows. As a result of the analysis done in this paper, it is obvious that multilevel modeling is needed to use for analyzing this data. This illustrates that it is a convenient way to use multilevel analysis for the data which obtained from animals when the data have hierarchies.

Transport of farm animals gives rise to concern about their welfare. Specific attention has been given to the duration of animal transport, and maximum journey durations are used in legislation that seek to minimise any negative impact of transport on animal welfare. This paper reviews the relatively few scientific investigations into effects of transport duration on animal welfare in cattle, sheep, horses, pigs and poultry. From the available literature, we attempt to distinguish between aspects, which will impair welfare on journeys of any duration, such as those associated with loading, and those aspects that may be exacerbated by journey time. We identify four aspects of animal transport, which have increasing impact on welfare as transport duration increases. These relate to (i) the physiological and clinical state of the animal before transport; and – during transport – to (ii) feeding and watering; (iii) rest and (iv) thermal environment. It is thus not journey duration per se but these associated negative aspects that are the cause of compromised welfare. We suggest that with a few exceptions, transport of long duration is possible in terms of animal welfare provided that these four issues can be dealt with for the species and the age group of the animals that are transported. Transport of farm animals gives rise to concern about their welfare. Specific attention has been given to the duration of animal transport, and maximum journey durations are used in legislation that seek to minimise any negative impact of transport on animal welfare. This paper reviews the relatively few scientific investigations into effects of transport duration on animal welfare in cattle, sheep, horses, pigs and poultry. From the available literature, we attempt to distinguish between aspects, which will impair welfare on journeys of any duration, such as those associated with loading, and those aspects that may be exacerbated by journey time. We identify four aspects of animal transport, which have increasing impact on welfare as transport duration increases. These relate to (i) the physiological and clinical state of the animal before transport; and - during transport - to (ii) feeding and watering; (iii) rest and (iv) thermal environment. It is thus not journey duration per se but these associated negative aspects that are the cause of compromised welfare. We suggest that with a few exceptions, transport of long duration is possible in terms of animal welfare provided that these four issues can be dealt with for the species and the age group of the animals that are transported.