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The current solar tower plants demand the measurement of high solar irradiance on the receiver. This measurement would facilitate the operation of the plant, the estimation of the receiver efficiency and would contribute to the safety of the receiver. Nowadays, these plants don't have a system to measure the flux because there are some limitations, as the difficulty to add new elements to the design and the structure of the tower. It is necessary to include a flux measurement system in the planning and construction of the commercial plants. This work presents a validation of the new indirect method to measure the flux which only use the surface of the receiver, a radiometer and a digital camera. In the context of an international project, the new method to measure the flux has been tested with a different receiver and with different working conditions. The receiver tested in this project is a volumetric receiver made of silicon carbide. The flux measurements have been done in the solar tower facility of the Plataforma Solar de Almería, the SSPS-CRS. The results obtained with this system have been compared to the results obtained with the reference flux measurement system based on a white lambertian target, obtaining a good level of agreement. This reference method can't be extrapolated to the commercial plants because it has moving parts that can't be added to the design of the towers. The new method avoids these moving elements and simplify the measurement of the flux distribution on the receiver. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Normal concentrations of ionized calcium in children differ from adults. • Radiometer instruments record lab results for all analytes independent of the order(s) placed. • Radiometer data can be used to apply exclusion criteria and calculate reference intervals. Measurement of ionized calcium (iCa) reflects bioavailable calcium and has significant utility in children. However, robust pediatric iCa reference intervals (RI) have not been well-established. In this study, we retrospectively calculated RI for iCa in a pediatric population by accessing archived data acquired on Radiometer instruments and applying stringent exclusion criteria. Data saved on 4 Radiometer ABL800 FLEX blood gas analyzers were queried. Exclusion criteria were applied based on information available from these instruments. iCa results were plotted and inflection points were visually identified. Following outlier removal and partition verification, age-specific RI were calculated using a nonparametric rank order approach from > 5,000 individuals. Finally, the stringency of the exclusion criteria was assessed by calculating RI from additional results in the dataset and comparing to existing in-house ranges. Six age-specific iCa partitions were established from 0 to 19 years. Relative to adults, wider ranges for the central 95th percentile were observed early in life that progressively narrowed with increasing age and approached adult concentrations by 2.5 years. Analysis of concurrent data for sodium and creatinine in the dataset suggest the applied exclusion criteria reduced the likelihood of including results from acutely-ill children. Normal concentrations of iCa in children are more variable than adults. Observed differences may reflect the transition from maternally supplied calcium to nutritional sources, the maturation of calcium homeostatic mechanisms, and/or the need for calcium for growth/development. This study also demonstrates the feasibility and advantages of using data archived on Radiometer analyzers to establish pediatric RI. This approach enables rapid, cost-effective evaluation of large datasets and may be a feasible option when prospective or detailed retrospective analyses are not possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Ground based radiometer has been used to calculate cloud attenuation. • Significant cloud attenuation has been observed over Kolkata in monsoon at 30 GHz. • August shows the worst month scenario due to high value of LWP. • Cloud attenuation has been compared with rain attenuation. The objective of this study is to investigate cloud attenuation at 30 GHz frequency using ground-based microwave radiometric observations at a tropical location, Kolkata. At higher frequencies and lower elevation angles, cloud attenuation is of major concern at a tropical location. The location experiences high value of liquid water path (LWP), which is responsible for cloud attenuation, during the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) and pre-monsoon season. Significant amount of cloud attenuation has been observed during monsoon season at 30 GHz. Two years observations of exceedance probability of cloud attenuation and worst month statistics are presented. The variation of cloud attenuation with frequencies for different elevation angles has also been investigated. The seasonal and diurnal patterns of cloud attenuation are examined. Cloud attenuation, inferred from radiometric measurements before rain commencement, has been compared to rain attenuation at Ku-band. Exceedance probabilities of cloud and rain attenuation have been compared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The current thermoelectric solar tower plants demand the measure of high solar irradiance on the receiver. Its measure would facilitate the operation of the plant and would contribute to a greater receiver security. Currently, solar tower plants do not have a flux measurement system in their receiver as it is not considered in their design. The inclusion of the flux measurement system in its design phase would facilitate its incorporation and correct operation. Instead, infrared temperature measurement systems are used to infer the irradiance on the receiver. This procedure is not suitable since the delay between the irradiance and the temperature in the receiver can reach a few minutes depending on the materials, the transfer fluid, the operating conditions and the meteorological variables. Traditional flux measurement methods, used during the evaluation of small solar receiver prototypes, turn to moving parts that do not extrapolate to large receivers of commercial solar tower plants due to scaling problems. On the other hand, the use of mobile elements, which interact with the concentrated solar radiation directed towards the receiver, would negatively affect the daily operation of the plant. This work presents a simple method that allows characterizing a large target and quantifying its degree of homogeneity and diffusivity. With favourable information about receiver diffusivity, a way of proceeding to measure directly high solar irradiance on the surface of the receivers of solar tower plants without including moving parts is presented. This measurement system would consist of a digital camera and a radiometer. Highlights • Procedure to measure directly high solar irradiance on the receiver surface. • This measurement system consists of a digital camera and a radiometer. • Characterization of a large target and quantification of its degree of diffusivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new multilayer (ML) cloud detection algorithm based on three shortwave infrared (SWIR) and two longwave infrared (LWIR) channels is developed and applied to the Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) onboard the Suomi-NPP satellite. The algorithm identifies ML clouds, i.e., ice clouds overlying water clouds, based on satellite multispectral observations in the 1.38, 1.6, 2.25, 8.5, and 11 μm channels. We perform synthetic radiative transfer simulations to understand the sensitivities of the aforementioned channels on ML and single-layer (SL) clouds. Active CALIOP observations are used to evaluate the algorithm. Compared with the collocated CALIOP results, the algorithm can determine SL and ML clouds correctly with success rates of approximately 80% and 60%, respectively, and has similar performance to that of the current MODIS operational ML cloud detection algorithm. The misclassification of ML clouds as SL clouds is primarily caused by thin ice clouds that are practically undetectable using LWIR tests. Furthermore, the algorithm is extended to analyze data from radiometers onboard the geostationary Himawari-8 and FengYun-4A satellites, and results similar to those of VIIRS are obtained. • A new algorithm for multilayer cloud detection is developed for VIIRS radiometer. • Accurate radiative transfer is performed for model understanding and development. • The model is evaluated using collocated MODIS and CALIOP observations. • It is extended for multilayer cloud detection of two geostationary radiometers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Active and passive microwave signals over land co-vary depending on their shared scattering and emission characteristics by soil and vegetation media. Estimates of this covariation can be used beneficially to downscale coarse-resolution brightness temperatures with high-resolution backscatter for enhanced-resolution Earth observations. In this study, a forward model of covariation for vegetated soil is derived by combining two well-established models of active and passive microwave interactions. The covariation model is inverted to obtain a single-pass observation-driven estimation of active-passive microwave covariation (β) based on multi-channel radiometer and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) scenes. A key feature of the estimation approach is that it is applicable to co-located spatial data scenes and does not rely on temporal information. We present applications of the estimation with combinations of SMAP (L-band) radiometry and both SMAP (L-band) and multi-angular Sentinel-1 (C-band) backscatter data. We first show that for the period of available SMAP L-band radiometer and radar data, the estimation approach for β , introduced in this study, yields similar results as the statistical time-series approach originally designed for SMAP. The new single-pass approach also allows estimation of active-passive covariation where the statistical approach cannot be applied because dynamic range of brightness temperature and backscatter are too limited to allow regression. We then apply the developed estimation method to SMAP L-band radiometer and multi-angular Sentinel-1 C-band SAR data. Here, the study quantifies the effects of microwave frequency and look-angles on the covariation by applying the estimation globally and analyzing the results as a function of vegetation cover – a key determinant of the strength of the covariation. • A single-pass estimation of active-passive microwave covariation is established. • The approach allows estimation of covariation without the need for time series. • It is observation-driven and does not require site-specific calibration. • It enables global downscaling of SMAP radiometer with Sentinel-1 radar data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Detection and mitigation of radio frequency interference (RFI) is one of the most crucial issues in microwave remote sensing measurements. This study analyzes the brightness temperature and RFI acquired by the soil moisture active passive (SMAP) satellite L-band radiometer over China and its offshore areas, revealing that the RFI distribution is uneven. In China, RFI is mainly concentrated in the urban agglomerations and their surrounding areas. Further, RFI and population density show strong positive correlation. A comparison of the radiometer antenna brightness temperature data and the data after RFI detection and mitigation shows that the volume of the detected RFI is ∼1.4 K and the standard deviation is 6.5. Under the influence of RFI, different bands and polarizations in the study area did not show significant differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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To improve the thermal modelling of high power isotope separation on-line (ISOL) targets at TRIUMF, an optical technique is being developed that allows for direct off-line and on-line temperature measurements of targets for radioactive isotope production. In this setup the light coming from a hot target through the ionizer opening is collected via a set of optics and coupled into a spectrometer. Thus, from the emission spectrum and Planck's law, the target temperature can be deduced. Tantalum targets were heated to high temperatures and preliminary temperature measurements confirm the correlation between the spectrum of the radiation emitted from the target and the currents used to resistively heat the targets. The final goal is to apply this technique to on-line targets and correlate the isotope releases with the target temperatures for a better understanding of the diffusion and effusion processes happening in the target and for optimizing the delivery of short-lived species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface is known to have various effects on human health and on the ecosystem. Ground-based measurements of surface UV radiation are spatially sparse and in many cases do not provide long time series. Higher spatial coverage can be provided by measurements from satellite based instruments, but these measurements need to be compared to ground-based measurements of sufficient quality before they can be used in health and ecosystem applications. Here, we compare the measurements of surface solar UV radiation in UVA (315–400 nm) and UVB (280–315 nm) bands with the satellite retrievals (CERES) and validate the latter at an urban location, Delhi, India. We have also used MODIS-retrieved aerosol optical depth (AOD) and cloud optical depth (COD) data to see the effect of atmospheric opacity on UV radiation. Ground-based measurements of UVA and UVB were performed from 01 October, 2012 to 30 September, 2015. Correlations between daily surface measurements and CERES-derived surface UV fluxes showed very good agreement (r ∼ 0.92–0.93) over Delhi. We found a negative correlation between UV fluxes and AOD over Delhi during all seasons. A unit increase in AOD leads to a decrease of ∼4–5 Wm -2 in UVA and ∼0.09–0.14 Wm -2 in UVB over Delhi. The trend analysis from monthly mean CERES-derived UV fluxes for 17 years data reveals that UVA and UVB are decreasing ∼0.07 Wm -2 yr −1 and 0.003 Wm -2 yr −1 , respectively with AOD increase (∼0.005 yr −1 ) over Delhi. The simultaneous increase in aerosol loading with decrease in UV fluxes at the surface may be explained as a masking effect of ever increasing pollution on surface UV radiation over Delhi. Our results show ∼10% and ∼20% decrease (with respect to mean) in UVA and UVB surface fluxes, respectively during last 17 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a novel cost effective narrow-beam radiometer what was designed to measure incident heat flux at a specific location in high temperature and high pressure combustor. Beyond the radiometer the whole measurement assembly contains a water cooled plate for cold background, a high pressure window transparent for visible and IR radiation and a radiometer position/angle adjustment tool. The thermopile based radiometer measures the total heat radiation in a wavelength range of 0.6–8 µm. A special view tube was developed for decreasing the view angle to 0.35°, what angle was dictated by the dimensions of the combustor and the associated port sizes. Calibration curves were measured using a high temperature black body calibrator and the uncertainty of the measurement was evaluated. Although the presented radiant heat flux measurement method was developed for a specific combustor, it can be easily implemented for various combustion applications as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) is a suite of environmental sensors onboard NASA’s Mars 2020 mission. The Thermal InfraRed Sensor (TIRS), developed at Centro de Astrobiología of Spain, is one of the six sensors comprising MEDA, and it will measure the net thermal infrared radiation and reflected solar radiation at the surface, as well as the atmospheric and surface skin temperatures using five different channels. In combination with MEDA's other sensors, TIRS will allow the quantification of the surface energy budget and the determination of key geophysical properties of the terrain such as the albedo and thermal inertia. Here we present a general description of the TIRS, its channels scientific requirements, and the mechanical and thermal design. Then, a detailed sensor mathematical model and a sensitivity analysis to model uncertainties are described. Some characterization test results to model parameters identification are included. Finally, accuracy and resolution calculus for each channel versus operational temperature is presented. The calculus is performed based on sensitivity equations, the practical tests results and the estimated values for different uncertainty sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collocated observations from microwave radiometer and wind profiler are used in a pilot study during the monsoon period to derive information on the thermodynamics and winds and association with rainfall characteristics. These instruments were operated throughout the monsoon season of 2015. Continuous vertical profiles of winds, temperature and humidity show significant promise for understanding the low-level jet, its periodicity and its association with moisture transport, clouds and precipitation embedded within the monsoon large-scale convection. Observations showed mutually beneficial in explaining variability that are part of the low frequency oscillations and the diurnal variability during monsoon. These observations highlight the importance of locally driven convective systems, in the presence of weak moisture transport over the area. The episodic moisture convergence showed a periodicity of 9 days which matches with the subsequent convection and precipitation and thermodynamic regimes. Inferences from the diurnal cycle of moisture transport and the convective activity, relationship with the low-level jet characteristics and thermodynamics are also illustrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radiometric observations of relative humidity profile at Kolkata show a significant fall at around 1 to 2 km height during convective rain events. An extensive investigation shows that the fall of relative humidity is not seen during calm conditions but is strongly related to the characteristics of temperature lapse rate profiles. Moreover, the phenomenon may have strong association with boundary layer structure. The reason for such anomalies in the planetary boundary layer humidity profile might be due to the release of latent heat at the mentioned altitude. The abundance of pollutant aerosols in urban regions has also been found to contribute to this relative humidity anomaly. It has also been reported that this boundary layer relative humidity is accompanied by high latent heat release and condensation of vapour to liquid which is not much prominent in other rain types as observed in stratiform rain. Hence, convective rain produces some unique boundary layer characteristics which have also been partially supported with allied satellite and multi-station observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present paper, permittivity maps of equatorial lunar surface are generated using brightness temperature ( T B ) data obtained from Microwave Radiometer (MRM) of Chang'e-1 and physical temperature ( T P ) data obtained from Diviner of Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO). Here, permittivity mapping is not carried out above 60° latitudes towards the lunar poles due to large anomaly in the physical temperature obtained from the Diviner. Microwave frequencies, which are used to generate these maps are 3 GHz, 7.8 GHz, 19.35 GHz and 37 GHz. Permittivity values are simulated using T B values at these four frequencies. Here, weighted average of physical temperature obtained from Diviner are used to compute permittivity at each microwave frequencies. Longer wavelengths of microwave signals give information of more deeper layers of the lunar surface as compared to smaller wavelength. Initially, microwave emissivity is estimated using T B values from MRM and physical temperature ( T P ) from Diviner. From estimated emissivity the real part of permittivity ( ε ), is calculated using Fresnel equations. The permittivity maps of equatorial lunar surface is generated. The simulated permittivity values are normalized with respect to density for easy comparison of simulated permittivity values with the permittivity values of Apollo samples as well as with the permittivity values of Terrestrial Analogue of Lunar Soil (TALS) JSC-1A. Lower value of dielectric constant ( ε ′) indicates that the corresponding lunar surface is smooth and doesn't have rough rocky terrain. Thus a future lunar astronaut can use these data to decide proper landing site for future lunar missions. The results of this paper will serve as input to future exploration of lunar surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microwave radiometer is an effective instrument to monitor the atmosphere continuously in different weather conditions. It measures brightness temperatures at different frequency bands which are subjected to standard retrieval methods to obtain real time profiles of various atmospheric parameters such as temperature and humidity. But the retrieval techniques used by radiometer have to be adaptive to changing weather condition and location. In the present study, three retrieval techniques have been used to obtain the temperature and relative humidity profiles from brightness temperatures, namely; piecewise linear regression, feed forward neural network and neural back propagation network. The simulated results are compared with radiosonde observations using correlation analysis and error distribution. The analysis reveals that neural network with back propagation is the most accurate technique amongst the three retrieval methods utilized in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, the effectiveness of nowcasting convective activities using a microwave radiometer has been examined for Kolkata (22.65° N, 88.45° E), a tropical location. It has been found that the standard deviation of brightness temperature (BT) at 22 GHz and instability indices like Lifting Index (LI), K Index (KI) and Humidity Index (HI) has shown definite changes before convective events. It is also seen that combination of standard deviation of BT at 22 GHz and LI can be most effective in predicting convection. A nowcasting algorithm is prepared using 18 isolated convective events of 2011 and in all cases, a marked variation of these parameters has been seen an hour before the event. Accordingly, a prediction model is developed and tested on convective events of 2012 and 2013. It is seen that the model gives reasonable success in predicting convective rain about 7075 min in advance with a prediction efficiency of 80%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A ground based microwave profiling radiometer has been operational in the Snowy Mountains in south eastern Australia and was used to build a limited three year data set of supercooled liquid water (SLW). Satellite observations (MODIS) of cloud-top thermodynamic phase suggest that SLW commonly occurs over the Snowy Mountains during the winter months and at much higher rates compared to other mountain ranges such as the Sierra Nevada. The radiometer was able to confirm the high frequency of occurrence of SLW at 53% of the time (April-September) and the observations were consistent with MODIS. Path integrated liquid water amounts observed from the radiometer were compared to those from MODIS, although the radiometer tended to observe significantly more liquid water than MODIS. SLW was documented and assigned to synoptic types with 43.0% of total SLW attributed to “cutoff lows" (equatorward of 45°S) and 42.2% were assigned to “embedded lows". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Methods to model snow aggregate scattering properties at microwave frequencies can be divided into structurally explicit and implicit techniques. Explicit techniques, such as the discrete dipole approximation (DDA), determine scattering and backscatter cross-sections assuming full knowledge of a given snow particle’s structure. Such calculations are computationally expensive. Implicit techniques, such as using the T-matrix method (TMM) with optically soft spheroids, model equivalent particles with variable mass, bulk density and aspect ratio according to an effective-medium approximation. It is highly desirable that there should be a good agreement between modeled aggregate cross-sections using both methods. A Voronoi bounding-neighbor algorithm is presented in this study to determine the bulk equivalent density of complex three-dimensional snow aggregates. While mass and aspect ratio are easily parameterized quantities, attempts to parameterize the bulk density of snowflakes have usually relied on a bounding ellipsoid, which can be determined from a flake’s radius of gyration, root mean square mean or simply from its maximum diameter. We compared the Voronoi algorithm against existing bounding spheroid approaches and mass–effective density relations at ten frequencies from 10.65 to 183.31 GHz, using a set of 1005 aggregates with maximum dimensions from a few hundred microns to several centimeters. When using the Voronoi-determined effective density, the asymmetry parameter, scattering, and backscatter cross-sections determined using the TMM reasonably match those for DDA-computed snow aggregates. From K u to W-band, soft spheroids can reproduce cross-sections for aggregates up to 9 mm in maximum dimension. Volume-integrated cross-sections always agree to within 25% of DDA. As the DDA is computationally expensive, this offers a fast alternative that efficiently evaluates scattering properties at microwave frequencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, absolute calibration of the Chinese HY-2 satellite altimetry mission is carried out, employing Pass No. 280 and the calibration facility, CRS1, located in the Southwest end of the island of Crete, Greece. Satellite Pass No. 280 is descending and follows a ground track almost parallel to the west coast of Crete. It comes close to the coast, at a distance of about 9 km from the CRS1 calibration site, and finally goes away south of Crete. The HY-2 sensor geophysical data records (S-GDR) have been incorporated into the calibration procedures and processing has taken place for cycles No. 54–62, at 20 Hz data rate. Some peculiarities in the HY-2 satellite altimeter data, as delivered and depicted in the I-GDR and S-GDR data, have also been noticed. All calibration results have been determined using a regional, precise and detailed geoid, along with a good knowledge of local ocean circulation and site characteristics and a well-defined sea-surface calibration methodology. The first preliminary results for the HY-2 altimeter calibration have shown that the initial cycles, up to No. 51, display an erratic behavior. After those cycles, the altimeter range bias values seem to be stable and reach a value of B = −45.6 cm ± 4.4 cm, when applying the net instrument corrections as provided in the GDR. If the relativistic effects of the satellite clocks are properly applied for the net instrument corrections, then the altimeter range bias goes down to B = −27 cm ± 3 cm. Also, preliminary cross-over analysis with the SARAL/AliKa and Jason-2 satellites show a bias of B = −23 cm, and B = −28.5 cm, respectively. The performance of the HY-2 on-board radiometer has also been examined in terms of the wet troposphere corrections and shows a mean difference of −1 cm ± 0.1 cm with respect to in-situ GNSS-derived corrections. Finally, the ionosphere path corrections of the HY-2 satellite show a difference of +1 cm ± 1.1 cm, when compared against the GNSS-derived ionosphere values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

L-band brightness temperature (TB) has been shown to provide the best sensitivity to soil moisture (SM) although C- and X-band based products offer a longer time-series from satellite-based measurements. Currently, global coverage SM is routinely produced from spaceborne measurements using all three frequency bands, but despite continued validation efforts of the products, the relative characteristics and performance of these observations have not been fully established. Therefore, this study focused on the parametrization of SM retrieval algorithms at L-, C- and X-bands using TB observations from the L-band radiometer on NASA's SM Active Passive (SMAP) mission and the C- and X-band channels of JAXA's Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) onboard the GCOM-W satellite. These can be applied in global SM retrieval algorithms using either one of the frequencies or a combination of them. The reference in situ SM data was obtained from 12 core validation sites across various land cover types around the world. The investigation highlighted the known challenges of retrieving SM from C- and X-band data compared to the higher sensitivity of the L-band data. Even with a site-specific retrieval algorithm parameterization, the mean correlation of the C- and X-band retrievals for the core validation site SM measurement were much lower than that for L-band, being 0.52 (0.54) and 0.45 (0.47) for vertical (horizontal) polarization, respectively, while for the L-band retrieval the corresponding values were 0.81 (0.77). The parameterization exercise showed that matching the C- and X-band TB measurements with an emission model was not difficult; the problem was relating the observations to SM under the influence of large roughness and vegetation effects. As a result, parameter optimization produced values for some sites that were not realistic or did not allow any practical sensitivity to SM at C- and X-band. Considering the L-band observations, the parameter optimization resulted in superior bias performance as compared to the operational SMAP product parameterization, but the sensitivity to SM changes (R and unbiased root mean square difference) did not improve markedly, or in some cases degraded at the expense of a smaller bias. • Spaceborne radiometer observation at L/C/X-band over 12 soil moisture core sites. • Calibration of soil moisture retrieval algorithm for L/C/X-band using the core sites. • L-band retrieval achieves correlation of 0.8 while C/X-band achieves only 0.5. • Retrieval capability of C/X-band questionable over some of the sites. • Calibration of L-band improves bias and RMSD over SMAP product but not sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Satellite microwave observations from 1.4 to 36 GHz already showed sensitivity to several geophysical parameters of sea ice such as Sea Ice Concentration (SIC), Sea Ice Thickness (SIT) or snow depth. The main goal of this article is to provide a realistic and comprehensive characterization of the sea ice and its snow cover that explains the microwave observations during a whole year using a radiative transfer model. For this purpose, we construct a unique dataset of passive microwave observations, to mimic the future Copernicus Imaging Microwave Radiometer (CIMR), along with the active microwave scatterometer data (ASCAT). CIMR database is used to classify sea ice microwave signatures in their spectral dimension with a machine learning technique while ASCAT data are used to help interpret the results of the classification. Classification results are then interpreted with a state-of-art sea ice and Snow Microwave Radiative Transfer model (SMRT) for all highlighted signatures and all seasons. Results make it possible to identify the specific behaviors from the observation co-variabilities for SIC, SIT, and snow structure. Our analysis underlined the role of the depth hoar over multi-year ice, for the interpretation of scattering signals in winter. Scattering signals that appear in late summer are explained by the presence of superimposed ice. This characterization will benefit from future advances in SMRT development, as well as the improved observations of future satellite missions. • Realistic sea ice and snow characterization is made for a round year. • Kohonen classification highlights sea ice microwave signature. • Radiative transfer modSel links classification results and geophysical parameters. • Depth hoar play an important role in microwave scattering explanation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we evaluate the skill of a new, merged soil moisture product (ECV_SM) that has been developed in the framework of the European Space Agency's Water Cycle Multi-mission Observation Strategy and Climate Change Initiative projects. The product combines in a synergistic way the soil moisture retrievals from four passive (SMMR, SSM/I, TMI, and AMSR-E) and two active (ERS AMI and ASCAT) coarse resolution microwave sensors into a global data set spanning the period 1979–2010. The evaluation uses ground-based soil moisture observations of 596 sites from 28 historical and active monitoring networks worldwide. Besides providing conventional measures of agreement, we use the triple collocation technique to assess random errors in the data set. The average Spearman correlation coefficient between ECV_SM and all in-situ observations is 0.46 for the absolute values and 0.36 for the soil moisture anomalies, but differences between networks and time periods are very large. Unbiased root-mean-square differences and triple collocation errors show less variation between networks, with average values around 0.05 and 0.04 m 3 m − 3 , respectively. The ECV_SM quality shows an upward trend over time, but a consistent decrease of all performance metrics is observed for the period 2007–2010. Comparing the skill of the merged product with the skill of the individual input products shows that the merged product has a similar or better performance than the individual input products, except with regard to the ASCAT product, compared to which the performance of ECV_SM is inferior. The cause of the latter is most likely a combination of the mismatch in sampling time between the satellite observations and in-situ measurements, and the resampling and scaling strategy used to integrate the ASCAT product into ECV_SM on the other. The results of this study will be used to further improve the scaling and merging algorithms for future product updates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The surface layer of the Moon preserves vital evidences of lunar impact and cratering processes due to the absence of any Aeolian and fluvial erosion processes acting on it. By examining these evidences, which are recorded throughout the evolutionary history of the Moon, several basic aspects of lunar science can be understood, and this has direct relevance to the surfaces of other airless bodies within the solar system. In this study, rock abundance data obtained from Thermal Infrared (TIR) observations and radar Circular Polarization Ratio (CPR) data sets obtained from polarimetric SAR observations were correlated at some sample sites on the lunar surface. Preliminary results yielded qualitative and quantitative estimates for surface rock abundances. Except at distal ejecta deposits of young, bright craters a general correlation was observed between the two datasets. Mixed results were observed from the impact melt flows where the situation is complex due to the possible subsurface-volume and volume-subsurface interactions of the radar waves. But the flow features were clearly separated from the interior and ejecta regions of their parent craters in terms of CPR and rock abundances. The extent and distributions of pyroclastic deposits and dark haloed regions could not be distinctly identified at the resolution of datasets utilized. Near Gerasimovich D crater, the Diviner Radiometer has provided the first TIR observations of a newly discovered impact melt flow which was not visible in the optical imagery. This facilitated the first ever quantitative comparisons of the radar CPR and rock abundance values near such a region. Also, significant differences in spatial patterns between the radar and rock concentration data sets were observed, owing to the differences in the sensitivity of the two observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 5 February 2012 an episode of freezing precipitation took place in the Guadarrama Mountains, at the center of the Iberian Peninsula. This precipitation affected high elevations, where temperatures remained below freezing because of snow cover that had accumulated from snowfall during the previous days. The case study was recorded by surface synoptic observations (SYNOP) at Navacerrada Pass meteorological observatory (belonging to the National Weather Service of Spain). To study winter cloud systems during the TEcoAgua project, a multichannel ground-based microwave radiometer (MMWR), Micro Rain Radar (MRR-2), and isothermal cloud chamber were installed in the study area, thus permitting the monitoring of the freezing precipitation event. Analysis using Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) satellite data and observations permitted the determination of factors that triggered the freezing precipitation event. Freezing drizzle was interspersed with the passage of a warm and cold front. During frontal passage, mid-level clouds inhibited the generation of freezing drizzle, with snowfall recorded in the study area. However, during the period between the two fronts, an absence of mid-level clouds permitted low-level orographic clouds to persist upwind of the mountain system, producing freezing drizzle at the surface. The decisive factors for the generation of freezing drizzle were high humidity at low levels, weak mesoscale updrafts caused by the topography, stability at mid levels, cloud-top temperatures warmer than − 15 °C, and low concentrations of ice nuclei. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to present statistics related to the integration of cloud and rain liquid water and the profiles for different cloud types and regimes. From 2010 to 2012, the CHUVA project collected information regarding cloud and rain characteristics in different precipitation regimes in Brazil. CHUVA had four field campaigns between 2010 and 2011, located in the North, Northeast and Southeast regions of Brazil, covering the semi-arid, Amazon, coastal and mountain regions. The synergy of several instruments allowed us to classify rain events and describe the cloud processes regionally. Microwave radiometers, LiDAR, radar, and disdrometers were employed in this study. The rain type classification was made using vertical profiles of reflectivity (VPR) and polarimetric variables from dual polarization radar (XPOL). The integrated liquid water (ILWC) for non-precipitating clouds was retrieved with a microwave ground-based radiometer using a neural network. For rainy conditions, the profiles from the rain liquid water content (LWCR) and their integrated (ILWR) properties were estimated by Micro Rain Radar (MRR) and XPOL VPRs. For non-precipitating clouds, the ILWC values were larger for the sites in tropical regions, in particular near the coast, than for Southeast Brazil. For rainy cases, distinct LWCR profiles were observed for different rain classifications and regions. The differences are small for low rain rates and a distinction between different rainfall regimes is more evident for high rain rates. Vale and Belém clouds present the deepest layers and largest convective rain rates. The clouds in the Southeast region of Brazil (Vale do Paraíba) and North region (Belém) showed the largest reflectivity in the mixed and glaciated layers, respectively. In contrast, the Northeast coastal site (e.g. Fortaleza) showed larger values in the warm part of the clouds. Several analyses are presented, describing the cloud processes and the differences among the cloud types, rain rates and regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Extinction coefficients (k) for UVA and UVB were calculated using algal suspensions. [•] Under controlled growth conditions, k may be estimated using OD750. [•] Beer–Lambert’s law definite integral was used to calculate average UVR intensity. [•] UVR dose calculations were 2–40 times more accurate than values obtained with previous approaches. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Data of Lambertian equivalent reflectivity (LER) in ultraviolet (UV)-A range recorded by Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) series aboard Nimbus 7 and Earth Probe and by Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on EOS Aura have been analyzed over eight Chilean locations spanning from about 18° to 62° S (i.e. including Profesor Julio Escudero station, Antarctic peninsula), covering years 1978–2011. Generally the distribution of the reflectivity is similar for both TOMS datasets. A slightly better agreement has been found for the most southern locations while a small discordance appears for northern locations. The latter could be partly due to actual differences in the cloud cover conditions. On the other hand, OMI LER data differ from TOMS ones in almost all locations. Daily cloud modification factor (CMF) values from ground-based global solar irradiance measurements have been compared with OMI LER-based CMF data. The northernmost and southernmost locations characterized by prevalent clear sky and winter snow conditions, respectively, showed the worse agreement with a correlation coefficient r=0.63 and 0.71, while other stations showed a better correlation (i.e. r=0.83 and r=85). Clear sky ground UV index values for Santiago de Chile have been estimated for years 1979–2011 by means of an empirical reconstruction model based on data recorded by a multichannel radiometer. It allowed computing a ground-based CMF for years 1996–2011 and comparing it with satellite data. Results show that OMI CMF based on gridded cell LER data introduces significant differences with respect to equivalent TOMS CMF. On the contrary, the use of overpass LER data allows to evaluate changes in cloudiness and, by using the model, reconstructing the actual UV index. Nevertheless, LER CMF overestimates actual cloud cover conditions in winter. The trend in reconstructed satellite (ground) based UV index during summer months is +3.3±0.9% (+11.9±2.5%)/decade for years 1979–2011 (1997–2011). Further comparisons concerning the Total Cloud Fraction product of Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) suggest that it could be used a further proxy of cloudiness for UV reconstruction models; nevertheless additional analysis is necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Earth’s atmosphere is an integral part of the detector in ground-based imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescope (IACT) experiments and has to be taken into account in the calibration. Atmospheric and hardware-related deviations from simulated conditions can result in the mis-reconstruction of primary particle energies and therefore of source spectra. During the eight years of observations with the High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) in Namibia, the overall yield in Cherenkov photons has varied strongly with time due to gradual hardware aging, together with adjustments of the hardware components, and natural, as well as anthropogenic, variations of the atmospheric transparency. Here we present robust data selection criteria that minimize these effects over the full data set of the H.E.S.S. experiment and introduce the Cherenkov transparency coefficient as a new atmospheric monitoring quantity. The influence of atmospheric transparency, as quantified by this coefficient, on energy reconstruction and spectral parameters is examined and its correlation with the aerosol optical depth (AOD) of independent MISR satellite measurements and local measurements of atmospheric clarity is investigated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effect of the earth's atmosphere on radio waves propagating over an earth-space path is a major concern in the design and performance of satellite communications systems. Some characteristics of cloud and its effect on signal propagation has been studied using multi-wavelength radiometer at a tropical location of Kolkata, India. The liquid water content profile shows high values at higher altitude during pre-monsoon season indicating the presence of cloud above zero degree isotherm. Significant change in attenuation value is observed for same liquid water content due to change in temperature and accordingly a suitable relationship is obtained for the present location. The measurements indicate that ~4dB and ~12dB attenuation is caused due to cloud at 0.01% outage probability at the Ka and V band, respectively. ITU-R model is found to be overestimating the cloud attenuation over this location and indicate the need for more experimental measurement from tropical region. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An improved blended data method was developed for preparation and generation of solar radiation gridded datasets for SILO; Queensland Government database containing point and gridded daily climate data for Australia from 1890 till present designed for crop and pasture modelling. The new blended data method incorporates three sources of solar radiation data: radiometer measurements, sunshine duration, and cloud-cover observations. The new method converts all data sources to the percentage extra-terrestrial radiation using new conversion equations derived from the experimental data and thus the conversion tables previously used are now redundant. Comparison with satellite derived estimates shows that the blended data method has reduced bias compared to the previous method. The blended data method addresses the need for historical pre-satellite solar radiation gridded datasets for climate and agricultural modelling, model calibration, and computation of synthetic evaporation rates. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We analyze the surface emissivity and radar backscatter measured by the Aquarius L-band radiometer and scatterometer under rainy conditions. The residual signals due to rain are derived from measurements after accounting for roughness due to wind and flat surface emissivity. The wind roughness is accounted for by a geophysical model function (GMF) built using rain-free data. Using more than one year of Aquarius data collocated with SSMI/S, WindSAT rain rate and NCEP wind, our analysis reveals rain rate dependence in radar backscatter and surface emissivity, which become increasingly significant as the wind speed approaches zero and not significant above 15ms−1. The effect of rain on radar backscatter is dominated by raindrop splashing as indicated by the incidence angle dependence and polarization characteristics of the residuals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the TOPSAR acquisition mode, Sentinel-1 sensors acquire some data in passive mode, with a periodicity of approximately one second. These data provide valuable information about scene brightness and Radio Frequency pollution. This paper reviews the method to extract these passively sensed data and identify Radio Frequency Interferences (RFI). Two sets of measurements are generated by back-projecting passively sensed data on the ground, generating Earth Brightness Temperature (BT) and RFI equivalent temperature. A proper calibration has been implemented thanks to AMSR-2 data. The paper shows the result of one year of data collection from Sentinel 1 A and B regarding RFI and BT. We discuss the stability of the systems and the accuracy of the measurements by cross-comparing results from the two sensors, and we show how this information can be exploited for precise SAR data denoising and RFI mitigation. • Sentinel-1 TOPSAR mode senses Earth Brightness and Radio Frequency Interferences. • Brightness maps can be generated over most landmasses and nearby sea-ocean. • C-band Radio Frequency emissions can be detected with a sensitivity of hundred of K and continuously monitored World-Wide. • A geometric resolution of kilometers can be achieved by back-projecting ascending and descending passes. • These maps are used to enhance SAR products quality by denoising and removing RFI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Convection plays an important role in maintaining the thermodynamic structure of the atmosphere particularly in the tropical regions and it is often associated with clouds and precipitation. In the present study we report the diurnal variation of various stability indices observed using intensive radiosonde observations made during October 2010 to October 2011 over Indian tropical region, Gadanki (13.5°N, 79.2°E). Simultaneous co-located microwave radiometer (MWR) observations collected during April–October 2011 are used for comparison. Detailed comparison between these two independent techniques has been made which will be very much useful in assessing the data from MWR for Nowcasting. In general, MWR observations show warm (cold) bias in the temperature, except at 0.5km, when compared to radiosonde observations below (above) 3–4km, assuming latter as a standard technique. In case of water vapor, MWR observations show wet (dry) bias below (above) 2–3km depending on the time. Nevertheless, very good comparison in several convection indices is noticed between the two different techniques, particularly in the trends though some differences are noticed in the amplitudes. For about 25% of time MWR is unable to estimate the Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE) as equilibrium level is above the altitude that MWR can detect. Strong diurnal variation in CAPE and other thermodynamic parameters is noticed with maximum in the afternoon and minimum in the early morning hours in all the seasons except in winter over this tropical station. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper shows that radiometer channel radiances for cloudy atmospheric conditions can be simulated with an optimised frequency grid derived under clear-sky conditions. A new clear-sky optimised grid is derived for AVHRR channel . For HIRS channel 11 and AVHRR channel 5, radiative transfer simulations using an optimised frequency grid are compared with simulations using a reference grid, where the optimised grid has roughly 100–1000 times less frequencies than the full grid. The root mean square error between the optimised and the reference simulation is found to be less than 0.3K for both comparisons, with the magnitude of the bias less than 0.03K. The simulations have been carried out with the radiative transfer model Atmospheric Radiative Transfer Simulator (ARTS), version 2, using a backward Monte Carlo module for the treatment of clouds. With this module, the optimised simulations are more than 10 times faster than the reference simulations. Although the number of photons is the same, the smaller number of frequencies reduces the overhead for preparing the optical properties for each frequency. With deterministic scattering solvers, the relative decrease in runtime would be even more. The results allow for new radiative transfer applications, such as the development of new retrievals, because it becomes much quicker to carry out a large number of simulations. The conclusions are applicable to any downlooking infrared radiometer. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Over 700 weekly-spaced vertical profiles of aerosol number density have been archived during 14-year period (October 1986–September 2000) using a bi-static Argon ion lidar system at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune (18°43′N, 73°51′E, 559m above mean sea level), India. The monthly resolved time series of aerosol distributions within the atmospheric boundary layer as well as at different altitudes aloft have been subjected to the wavelet-based spectral analysis to investigate different characteristic periodicities present in the long-term dataset. The solar radiometric aerosol optical depth (AOD) measurements over the same place during 1998–2003 have also been analyzed with the wavelet technique. Wavelet spectra of both the time series exhibited significant quasi-annual (around 12–14 months) and quasi-biennial (around 22–25 months) oscillations at statistically significant level. An overview on the lidar and radiometric data sets including the wavelet-based spectral analysis procedure is also presented. A brief statistical analysis concerning both annual and interannual variability of lidar and radiometer derived aerosol distributions has been performed to delineate the effect of different dominant seasons and associated meteorological conditions prevailing over the experimental site in Western India. Additionally, the impact of urbanization on the long-term trends in the lidar measurements of aerosol loadings over the experimental site is brought out. This was achieved by using the lidar observations and a preliminary data set built for inferring the urban aspects of the city of Pune, which included population, number of industries and vehicles etc. in the city. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Large forest fires are a known natural and dominant disturbance factor in high northern latitudes, and form pyrocumulus (pyroCu), and occasionally pyrocumulonimbus (pyroCb) clouds. These clouds can transport emissions into the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere (UT/LS) and produce significant regional and even global climate effects, as is the case with some volcanoes. However, the lack of observational data within pyroCu or pyroCb complicates our ability to investigate pyro-convection and to understand the vertical and cross-isentropic transport mechanisms responsible for UT/LS injection. Here, we report detailed airborne radiation measurements within strong pyroCu taken over boreal forest fires in Saskatchewan, Canada during the Arctic Research of the Composition of the Troposphere from Aircraft and Satellites (ARCTAS) summer field campaign in 2008. We find a prominent smoke core within the pyroCu, which is defined by strong extinction in the UV, VIS and NIR, and high gas-particle concentrations. We also find that the angular distribution of radiance within the pyroCu is closely related to the diffusion domain in water clouds, which is dominated by multiple scattering processes. The radiation field of pyroCu can be described by diffusion approximations that are comprised of simple cosine functions, which can be used to calculate the spatial and temporal characteristics of the radiance field, and applied in cloud resolving models. We demonstrate with Monte Carlo simulations that radiation transport in pyroCu is inherently a 3D problem and must account for particle absorption. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Crop physiological and phenological status is an important factor that characterizes crop yield as well as carbon exchange between the atmosphere and the terrestrial biosphere in agroecosystems. It is difficult to establish high frequency observations of crop status in multiple locations using conventional approaches such as agronomical sampling and also remote sensing techniques that use spectral radiometers because of the labor intensive work required for field surveys and the high cost of radiometers designed for scientific use. This study explored the potential utility of an inexpensive camera observation system called crop phenology recording system (CPRS) as an alternative approach for the observation of seasonal change in crop growth. The CPRS consisting of two compact digital cameras was used to capture visible and near infrared (NIR) images of maize in 2009 and soybean in 2010 for every hour both day and night continuously. In addition, a four channel sensor SKYE measured crop reflectance and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite images were acquired over crop fields. The six different camera- radiometer- and MODIS-derived vegetation indices (VIs) were calculated and compared with the ground-measured crop biophysical parameters. In addition to VIs that use digital numbers, we proposed to use daytime exposure value-adjusted VIs. The camera-derived VIs were compared with the VIs calculated from spectral reflectance observations taken by SKYE and MODIS. It was found that new camera-derived VIs using daytime exposure values are closely related to VIs calculated using SKYE and MODIS reflectance and good proxies of crop biophysical parameters. Camera-derived green chlorophyll index, simple ratio and NDVI were found to be able to estimate the total leaf area index (LAI) of maize and soybean with high accuracy and were better than the widely used 2g-r-b. However, camera-derived 2g-r-b showed the best accuracy in estimating daily fAPAR in vegetative and reproductive stages of both crops. Visible atmospherically resistant vegetation index showed the highest accuracy in the estimation of the green LAI of maize. A unique VI, calculated from nighttime flash NIR images called the nighttime relative brightness index of NIR, showed a strong relationship with total aboveground biomass for both crops. The study concludes that the CPRS is a practical and cost-effective approach for monitoring temporal changes in crop growth, and it also provides an alternative source of ground truth data to validate time-series VIs derived from MODIS and other satellite systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: To solve the problem of thermal control coatings degradation in space environment, it is necessary to study coatings degradation law in simulated space environment. Therefore, a radiometer was developed for thermal control coatings in situ measurement. Using thermal analysis of radiometer construction, we built a transient calculation model to test thermal control coatings'' solar absorptance. When calculating heat transfer coefficients by steady-state calibration, an Extended Kalman Filter method was employed to predict the thermal equilibrium of radiometer to shorten the time. The radiometer was tested with SR107 thermal control coating in isoperibol. Experimental results show a relative error within 3% between the tested solar absorptance of SR107 and the coating calibration value. The uncertainty in measuring solar absorptance is 0.0052. This validates the effectiveness of the radiometer experiment and lays the foundation for further development of thermal control coating performance test. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Three Along Track Scanning Radiometers (ATSRs) form a series of space-borne instruments specifically optimised to provide accurate remotely sensed measurements of Sea Surface Temperature (SST), which is a key geophysical parameter required to inform the debate on climate change and global warming. These sensors'' well-calibrated, high quality data have wide applicability and are being used in a much wider range of earth observation studies and applications, in addition to the planned SST mission. Each successive instrument has been an incremental improvement over its predecessor. Since early 1991 the ATSR sensors have provided global observations from the European Space Agency''s Earth Observation satellites; namely ATSR-1 on ERS-1 (European Remote-sensing Satellite), then ATSR-2 on ERS-2 and then AATSR (Advanced ATSR) on ENVISAT. The missions have been operated with good overlaps between successive sensors; AATSR is currently the operational instrument. The fundamental requirement for each ATSR instrument is a design that is capable of delivering absolutely calibrated infrared data; therefore this paper concentrates on how the sensors provide the calibrated radiometric observations required for the SST retrieval algorithms to work. It does not discuss the validation of the algorithms to produce SST derived from these basic observations. Described are the rigorous pre-launch measurements over a range of simulated flight environments which verify that this aim has been achieved, a calibration which exercises the same brightness temperature algorithm that is then used when calibrating in-flight measurements. Crucially, the ATSRs measure calibration source radiances in-flight without interrupting Earth-viewing which permits continuous gain and offset monitoring and calibration. For clarity where it is thought necessary for a data user''s better understanding of the calibration for flight data, some detail is provided concerning the differences between the three different ATSRs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A 8mm passive focal plane image system which could be applied for airplane ils was introduced in this paper. System parameters were designed for this special purpose. Since high gain must be obtained based on limited feed antenna''s aperture, dielectric-loaded horn antenna was designed as the feed of parabolic reflector antenna to receive the power radiated from the object. 8mm direct detector receivers were connected directly to the feed horn antennas to avoid undesirable blockage. From the imaging results, the concrete buiding could be distinguished easily from the sky in the passive millimeter wave image. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The key variable describing global seasonal snow cover is snow water equivalent (SWE). However, reliable information on the hemispheric scale variability of SWE is lacking because traditional methods such as interpolation of ground-based measurements and stand-alone algorithms applied to space-borne observations are highly uncertain with respect to the spatial distribution of snow mass and its evolution. In this paper, an algorithm assimilating synoptic weather station data on snow depth with satellite passive microwave radiometer data is applied to produce a 30-year-long time-series of seasonal SWE for the northern hemisphere. This data set is validated using independent SWE reference data from Russia, the former Soviet Union, Finland and Canada. The validation of SWE time-series indicates overall strong retrieval performance with root mean square errors below 40mm for cases when SWE <150mm. Retrieval uncertainty increases when SWE is above this threshold. The SWE estimates are also compared with results obtained by a typical stand-alone satellite passive microwave algorithm. This comparison demonstrates the benefits of the newly developed assimilation approach. Additionally, the trends and inter-annual variability of northern hemisphere snow mass during the era of satellite passive microwave measurements are shown. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this work, main characteristics are considered of photosensitive Schottky diode structures – n-type ZnSe(Te,X)/Ni, where Х = O or Al, which are promising as ultraviolet radiation detectors in the 200–480 nm range. The Schottky barrier-based sensors show good sensitivity in the short-wave regions of the ultraviolet range, are practically insensitive to solar radiation at wavelengths above ∼460 nm, have rather short response time (∼1 ns) and quantum efficiency of up to 70%. Typical values of the monochromatic current sensitivity S λ in the 420–440 nm range is 0.1–0.15 А/W. Characteristics were studied of detectors using glass and interference light filters for singling out biologically active regions of A, B and C of ultraviolet spectrum. Testing results of our ultraviolet radiometer have shown that the developed experimental sample meets the requirements to the instruments of this class. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A multi-channel microwave radiometre (make: Radiometrics Corporation) is installed at Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais–INPE, Brazil (22°S). The radiometric output of two channels of the radiometer in the form of brightness temperature at 23.834GHz and 30GHz, initially, were used to find out the ambient water vapor content and the non-precipitable cloud liquid water content. The necessary algorithm was developed for the purpose. The best results were obtained using the hinge frequency 23.834GHz and 30GHz pair having an r.m.s. error of only 2.64. The same methodology was then adopted exploiting 23.034GHz and 30GHz pair. In that case the r.m.s. error was 3.42. These results were then compared with those obtained over Kolkata (22°N), India, by using 22.234GHz and 31.4GHz radiometric data. This work conclusively suggests the use of a frequency should not be at the water vapor resonance line. Instead, while measuring the vapor content for separation of vapor and cloud liquid, one of them should be a few GHz left or right from the resonance line i.e., at 23.834GHz and the other one should be around 30GHz. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The knowledge of net radiation at the surface is of fundamental importance because it defines the total amount of energy available for the physical and biological processes such as evapotranspiration, air and soil warming. It is measured with net radiometers, but, the radiometers are expensive sensors, difficult to handle, that require constant care and also involve periodic calibration. This paper presents a methodology based on neural networks in order to replace the use of net radiometers (expensive tools) by modeling the relationships between the net radiation and meteorological variables measured in meteorological stations. Two different data sets (acquired at different locations) have been used in order to train and validate the developed artificial neural model. The statistical results (low root mean square errors and mean absolute error) show that the proposed methodology is suitable to estimate net radiation at surface from common meteorological variables, therefore, can be used as a substitute for net radiometers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The quantum yields for two actinometers have been determined using a tunable laser light source at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, MD. The power of this light source has been calibrated against an absolute cryogenic radiometer, considered accurate with an uncertainty better than 0.1% at a coverage factor k =2. The quantum yield at 253.7nm for the ferrioxalate actinometer was found to be 1.38±0.03, which compares favorably with the value 1.40±0.03 determined by Goldstein and Rabani. The quantum yield at 253.7nm for the KI/KIO3 actinometer was found to be 0.69±0.02 at 23.5°C. Again this compares favorably with 0.72±0.03 determined by Goldstein and Rabani and 0.73±0.02 determined by Rahn et al. Based on the determinations to date, including the present investigation, the recommended values for the quantum yields at 253.7nm are 1.39±0.02 (temperature independent) for the ferrioxalate actinometer and [(0.71±0.02)+(0.0099±0.0004)(t −24)] for the KI/KIO3 actinometer, where t is the temperature (°C) of the actinometer solution. Finally, a protocol is recommended for the use of the KI/KIO3 actinometer to calibrate radiometer detectors at 253.7nm. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The photon W-value of dry air in the energy range of 2.2–3.9keV has been measured with relative expanded uncertainty of 0.84% (coverage factor ). Monochromatized synchrotron radiation was used for both measurements of the radiant power by means of a cryogenic radiometer and of photoion currents for ion-pair production by means of a multi-electrode ion chamber technique. The evaluated dependence of the photon W-value for dry air is consistent with the previously reported data for electrons and seems to show a small change at the Ar 1s ionization threshold. These findings were well reproduced with a model calculation using atomic photoionization data. Mass attenuation coefficients for air have been observed in the present soft X-ray region with a small energy step, which are close to data previously reported. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Measurements from July 4 to July 8, 2005 by a high resolution visible radiometer, a Raman lidar, a ground particulate matter sampler, and ground meteorological sensors have been combined in synergy to infer the intrusion over south-east Italy, of air masses from north-west Sahara, the Atlantic Ocean, and the continental Europe. It is shown that backscatter coefficient, depolarization-ratio, and lidar ratio vertical profiles represent the best tools to detect the intrusion of long range transported air masses and to monitor their effects on the vertical distribution of aerosol optical and microphysical properties. High resolution radiometers are instead important tools to monitor changes on columnar aerosol properties and size distributions. Backscatter coefficient, depolarization-ratio, and lidar ratio vertical profiles have revealed that aerosol optical and microphysical properties significantly changed with time and space during African dust outbreaks: the intrusion of dust particles that at first occurred above 2 km of altitude extending up to 6 km, affected the all aerosol load down to ground within few hours. Aerosol size distributions showed during dust events a clear bimodality with an accumulation mode maximum at 0.24 µm and a coarse mode maximum at 0.94 μm. Conversely, we have found that during the advection of air masses from the Atlantic and continental Europe, aerosol particles were mainly located below 2 km, their optical and microphysical properties were affected by smaller changes in time and space, and were characterized by depolarization ratios rather close to those due to a pure molecular atmosphere. In this case bimodal size distributions with an accumulation mode showing two sub-modes at 0.16 μm and 0.24 μm, respectively and a coarse mode centred at 0.94 μm have also been observed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Disturbance of forest ecosystems, an important component of the terrestrial carbon cycle, has become a focus of research over recent years, as global warming is about to increase the frequency and severity of natural disturbance events. Remote sensing offers unique opportunities for detection of forest disturbance at multiple scales; however, spatially and temporally continuous mapping of non-stand replacing disturbance remains challenging. First, most high spatial resolution satellite sensors have relatively broad spectral ranges with bandwidths unsuitable for detection of subtle, stress induced, features in canopy reflectance. Second, directional and background reflectance effects, induced by the interactions between the sun-sensor geometry and the observed canopy surface, make up-scaling of empirically derived relationships between changes in spectral reflectance and vegetation conditions difficult. Using an automated tower based spectroradiometer, we analyse the interactions between canopy level reflectance and different stages of disturbance occurring in a mountain pine beetle infested lodgepole pine stand in northern interior British Columbia, Canada, during the 2007 growing season. Directional reflectance effects were modelled using a bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) acquired from high frequency multi-angular spectral observations. Key wavebands for observing changes in directionally corrected canopy spectra were identified using discriminant analysis and highly significant correlations between canopy reflectance and field measured disturbance levels were found for several broad and narrow waveband vegetation indices (for instance, r 2 NDVI =0.90; r 2 CHL3 =0.85; p <0.05). Results indicate that multi-angular observations are useful for extraction of disturbance related changes in canopy reflectance, in particular the temporally and spectrally dense data detected changes in chlorophyll... [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A Monte Carlo radiative transfer program (Atmosphere–Ocean 3-Dimensional, AO3D) for modeling the coupled atmosphere–ocean environment has been developed. The code allows for the specification of optical properties for the atmosphere, land and ocean. Light rays are tracked as they pass between the atmosphere and the ocean, reflect off the ocean surface, the ocean floor, and off land, or are absorbed. In this version the polarization of light rays is not considered. The optical properties of each horizontally homogeneous layer within the atmosphere and ocean can be set on a layer-by-layer basis with a choice of phase functions, absorption and scattering coefficients, and index of refraction. A wind-dependent Cox and Munk ocean surface realization (with whitecaps) is implemented to model refraction and reflection from surface waves. Either spherical- or flat-Earth models can be used, and all refraction and reflection are accounted for. The AO3D model has been tested by parts, and as a whole by comparison with single- and total-scattering calculations from other radiative transfer codes. Comparisons with Monte Carlo calculations by Adams and Kattawar (agreement in TOA radiance within the published precision ∼2%), MODTRAN4 (agreement in spherical-shell atmosphere (SSA) sky radiance within about 2%) and Coupled DIScrete Ordinate Radiative Transfer (COART) (agreement in plane-parallel (PP) sky radiance within 2%) are shown. Sun photometer measurements (including large air mass values) at the Mauna Loa Observatory are compared to AO3D simulations (for a spherical Earth) and suggest that a thin aerosol layer was present above the observatory at the time of the measurements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]