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Nickel-based catalysts, recognized for their cost-efficiency and availability, play a critical role in advancing hydrogen production technologies. This study evaluates their optimization in water electrolysis to improve efficiency and system stability. Key findings highlight the enhancement of these catalysts with nickel-iron oxyhydroxide and nickel-molybdenum co-catalysts. Technological innovations, such as Perovskite Solar Cells integration for solar-to-hydrogen conversion, are explored. The use of nickel foam enhances electrode durability, offering valuable insights into designing sustainable and efficient hydrogen production systems. • Nickel-based catalysts are cost effective and increase hydrogen production rates. • Co-catalysts, e.g. nickel-iron oxyhydroxide, enhances the catalytic activity. • The use of nickel foam improves electrode durability. • Indonesia's nickel export bans boosted the domestic nickel industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a comprehensive framework for designing in-space propulsion systems, integrating four criteria: global propulsive performance, environmental impact, cost efficiency, and architectural reliability. The study focuses on the emerging class of Orbital Transfer Vehicles to illustrate the application of this method. By examining the synergistic potential of OTVs and greener propellants, the paper addresses different mission scenarios, including LEO, GEO, and lunar missions, with both scientific and commercial objectives. The proposed framework aims to go beyond traditional cost-centric approaches, offering a more complete evaluation method for early design phases. A case study comparing three liquid bipropellant options, pressure-fed MON-3/MMH, 98%-HTP/RP-1, and self-pressurizing N 2 O/Ethane, demonstrates the utility of the tool. Findings suggest that scientific missions benefit most from 98%-HTP/RP-1, while traditional propellants remain preferable for cost-driven commercial missions to GEO and the Moon, though greener alternatives are competitive for less demanding LEO missions. This innovative framework aims to guide the selection of propulsion systems to achieve greener space missions, aligning traditional performance figures with environmental responsibility. • The transition towards greener propellants introduces new requirements beyond pure performance. • A holistic early-design framework is proposed to identify optimal future propulsive solutions. • This approach integrates environmental impact and reliability alongside traditional cost-efficiency and performance targets. • Greener propellants demonstrate a competitive advantage over legacy ones for specific space mission profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Efficiency of water companies was evaluated using alternative parametric methods. • Efficiency scores based on SFA, BSFA and StoNED were 0.623, 0.583 and 0.522, respectively. • Quality of service variables influence the performance of water companies. The evaluation of efficiency can be of great value to water companies and regulators to adopt policies and design incentives to enhance performance. This study delves into the implications of employing distinct methodologies, namely the classical Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA), Bayesian SFA, and Stochastic non-parametric Envelopment of Data (StoNED), to evaluate cost and quality of service efficiency within the water industry. Chilean water companies reported average efficiencies of 0.623, 0.583, and 0.522 using the SFA, BSFA, and StoNED approaches, respectively. Furthermore, the SFA analysis suggested that the performance of water companies experienced a decline of −0.59% per year from 2010 to 2018. In contrast, the BSFA and StoNED estimations indicated an opposite trend, with annual performance improvements of 0.51% and 0.17% respectively, over the same period. These findings underscore the critical role of selecting appropriate methodologies when interpreting and comparing efficiency results for making informed long-term decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fuel cell vehicles using green hydrogen as fuel can contribute to the mitigation of climate change. The increasing utilization of those vehicles creates the need for cost efficient hydrogen refueling stations. This study investigates how to build the most cost efficient refueling stations to fuel small fleet sizes of 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 fuel cell busses. A detailed physical model of a hydrogen refueling station was built to determine the necessary hydrogen storage size as well as energy demand for compression and precooling of hydrogen. These results are used to determine the refueling costs for different station configurations that vary the number of storage banks, their volume and compressor capacity. It was found that increasing the number of storage banks will decrease the necessary total station storage volume as well as energy demand for compression and precooling. However, the benefit of adding storage banks decreases with each additional bank. Hence the cost for piping and instrumentation to add banks starts to outweigh the benefits when too many banks are used. Investigating the influence of the compressor mass flow found that when fueling fleets of 2 or 4 busses the lowest cost can be reached by using a compressor with the minimal mass flow necessary to refill all storage banks within 24 h. For fleets of 8, 16 and 32 busses, using the compressor with the maximum investigated mass flow of 54 kg/h leads to the lowest costs. • Designing the most cost efficient refueling stations to fuel small bus fleets. • New approach to minimize hydrogen fueling costs using a thermodynamic refueling model. • It is cost efficient to use a minimum of 4 cascade storage banks when fueling busses. • A high mass flow compressor is cost efficient for fleet sizes above 4 busses. • Energy demand for compression makes up a significant share of refueling costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the mechanical properties and cost efficiency of direct ink writing (DIW) printing of two different zirconia inks compared to casting and subtractive manufacturing. Zirconia disks were manufactured by DIW printing and the casting process and divided into six subgroups (n = 20) according to sintering temperatures (1350 °C, 1450 °C and 1550 °C) and two different ink compositions (Ink 1, Ink 2). A CAD/CAM-milled high strength zirconia (3Y-TZP) was added as reference group. The biaxial flexural strength (BFS) was measured using the piston-on-three-balls test. X-ray-diffraction (XRD) was used for microstructural analysis. The cost efficiency was compared for DIW printing and subtractive manufacturing by calculation of the manufacturing costs of one dental crown. Using XRD, monoclinic and tetragonal phases were detected for Ink 1, for all other groups no monoclinic phase was detected. The CAD/CAM-milled ceramic showed a significantly higher BFS than all other groups. The BFS of Ink 2 was significantly higher than the BFS of Ink 1. At a sintering temperature of 1550 °C the mean BFS of the printed Ink 2 was 822 ± 174 MPa. The BFS of the cast materials did not show a significantly higher BFS than the corresponding printed group for any tested parameter-set. The manufacturing costs of DIW printed crowns are lower than the manufacturing costs of CAD/CAM-milled crowns. DIW has a high potential to replace subtractive processes for dental applications, as it shows promising mechanical properties for appropriate ink compositions and facilitates a highly cost effective production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We use text mining and entropy method to measure bank digital transformation index. • Digital transformation significantly improves the cost efficiency of banks. • Digital transformation improves banks' cost efficiency through four mediating channels. • Digital transformation has heterogeneous impacts on different types of banks. This study explores the impact of digital transformation on the cost efficiency of commercial banks. Using panel data from 131 banks in China from 2013 to 2022, and employing text mining and entropy method to measure bank digital transformation index, we find that digital transformation significantly improves banks' cost efficiency. Digital transformation exerts its influence on banks' cost efficiency through four intermediary channels: facilitating business diversification, diminishing information asymmetry, enhancing fund utilization efficiency, and reducing risk. Moreover, heterogeneity analysis reveals that the impact of digital transformation on cost efficiency varies by bank size, capital status, asset structure, and ownership structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• AI adoption lowers pricing but affects market demand in a nonlinear pattern. • High back-end cost efficiency may discourage AI adoption in supply chains. • AI usage by retailers typically reduces overall supply chain profitability. • Strategic integration of AI can significantly enhance supply chain efficiency and profit margins. This paper explores the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in supply chain management, focusing on its impact on service models at both the front and back ends of the supply chain (SC). We employ a Stackelberg game model to construct an SC system consisting of a single manufacturer and a single retailer, aiming to assess the impact of AI on SC performance and explore strategic selection considerations within this framework. Our findings are as follows: (1) AI implementation generally leads to lower product pricing, but its effect on market demand follows a nonlinear pattern. In particular, when the manufacturer integrates AI, the simultaneous use of AI by the retailer will not change the wholesale price but will lead to a decrease in the retail price and market demand. (2) In situations where the back-end cost efficiency is sufficiently high, the optimal choice for both the manufacturer and retailer might be to refrain from adopting AI. Conversely, adopting AI is preferable when the back-end cost efficiency is sufficiently low. Furthermore, when the back-end cost efficiency is moderate, the manufacturer benefits from adopting AI, but the retailer's profit suffers. (3) Regardless of whether the manufacturer adopts AI, the retailer's most prudent option is not to implement AI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the first experimental investigation of the crack-healing behavior of recycled selvage fiber-reinforced engineered cementitious composites (RSF-ECCs). Fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), and crumb rubber powder were utilized to fabricate greener ECCs. RSF was used as main reinforcement; it contains polyethylene (PE), glass (GS), and PET fibers. For overall mechanical properties, RSF-ECC incorporating GGBS (ECC-S-RSF) obtained a compressive strength of over 80 MPa and a tensile strain capacity of over 10 %, values that are unprecedented in other recycled fiber-reinforced ECCs. Furthermore, the ECC-S-RSF showed the best cost efficiency among representative recycled and PE fiber-reinforced high-performance ECCs. In terms of the crack-healing performance, test results indicated that RSF-ECCs had excellent healing capacity in closing crack openings, and GGBS had a greater contribution to crack-healing than FA did. However, the stiffness and tensile restorations of RSF-ECCs were relatively modest compared to those of conventional ECCs. Calcium carbonate and C-S-H gel were dominant healing materials of RSF-ECCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We analyse the cost efficiency of the Italian banking system in the 1861–2010 period. • We use stochastic frontier analysis on Italian time series data. • We hypothesise that banking efficiency is driven by solvency and stability. • The results show that the banking efficiency is influenced negatively by banking instability. In this paper, we analyse the performance of the Italian banking system in the 1861–2010 period. In this regard, we apply a stochastic frontier analysis cum ARDL procedure. First, we implement stochastic frontier analysis to the cost function of the Italian banking system in order to identify the years in which the banking system allocated its resources most efficiently. To this end, we propose a version of the stochastic frontier in which the inefficiency term is modelled as a linear function of the capital ratio and of the non-core ratio. The underlying hypothesis is that the efficiency of the banking system is guided by its degree of solvency and stability (capital ratio and non-core ratio, respectively). Finally, in order to verify the existence and stability of a long-term relationship between banking efficiency and capital ratio and non-core-ratio, we implement ARDL estimation. In so doing, we verify whether solvency and stability are two important factors in determining the efficiency of the Italian banking system in the long run. We show that the efficiency of the banking system is influenced negatively by the non-core ratio and positively by the capital ratio, respectively. Finally, only the non-core ratio influences the efficiency of the Italian banking system in the long run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reviews the operations in 18 lines of seven major urban railway operators in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area and empirically evaluates their efficiencies while incorporating financial performance and in-vehicle congestion. The data were collected from statistical sources publicly available in Japan, and they contain in-vehicle congestion rates, line lengths, number of stations, vehicle kilometers, number of passengers, passenger kilometers, operating revenues by railway line, and operating expenses by operator in 2017. The line-level efficiencies of the operational efficiency, cost efficiency, and revenue efficiency were analyzed using data envelopment analyses, and Tobit regression was applied to examine how in-vehicle congestion rates are associated with these efficiencies. The efficiency analysis results showed that incorporating the in-vehicle congestion rate into operational efficiency enables to reflect the quality-of-service of the railway operation into the efficiency scores. Moreover, higher in-vehicle congestion rate leads to a lower cost efficiency but a higher revenue efficiency. The possible measures to improve efficiencies were discussed as per the categories of lines. • Operational, cost and revenue efficiencies were analyzed in Tokyo's urban railway. • Data envelopment analysis and Tobit regression were applied to 18 lines. • In-vehicle congestion (IVC) was incorporated into evaluating line's efficiencies. • IVC in operational efficiency enables to represent the line's service quality. • Higher IVC leads to lower cost efficiency but higher revenue efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we examined the impact of airport use agreements on the cost efficiency of large and medium U.S. hub airports in the years between 2009 and 2019 using a stochastic cost frontier model. We found that residual airports were less cost-efficient than compensatory and hybrid airports. The cost inefficiency in turn may translate into higher user fees for the signatory airlines. The result suggests that the residual rate-setting method may exert a moral hazard problem of airport management, because under such method, any cost deficit incurred by the airport will be covered by the signatory airlines, and this arrangement effectively shifts the risk of airport budget shortfall away from airport management. 1. Residual airports were less cost-efficient than compensatory and hybrid airports. 2. The cost inefficiency of residual airports may lead to higher airport fees for the signatory airlines. 3. Lower cost efficiency could undercut signatory airline's benefits under a residual contract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Output decomposition is considered into the estimation of the panel data cost efficiency of waste management service. • Results show that panel data cost efficiency is increased with selective collection. • Municipal direct provision is the least efficient management form for this service. • Panel data cost efficiency is positively related with progressive and coalition governments, a greater financial independence, a greater tourist and industrial activity and a greater proportion of women and of foreign-born residents. In recent years, concerns about the increasing generation of municipal solid waste, together with related health and environmental issues and regulatory changes, have motivated significant alterations in the provision of waste management services, such as the introduction of selective collection (by type of waste). However, these changes may impact on service costs and/or efficiency. The present study was undertaken to analyse the efficiency of the waste management service in Spain, using data from 283 municipalities for the period 2005–2015. The analysis consists of two phases: first, the application of panel data order-m frontiers, that allows to obtain a homogeneous estimation of efficiency based on the input–output relationship at the production process (Surroca et al., 2016), and second, the use of bootstrapped truncated regression, considering different municipal sizes. The results obtained show that cost efficiency is increased with selective collection and by certain political and socio-economic factors of the local governments, concretely with the government by a progressive party, coalition governments, a greater financial independence, a greater tourist and industrial activity and a greater proportion of women and of foreign-born residents in the municipality. We also show that municipal direct provision is the least efficient management form for this service. The main contribution made by this study is to examine the influence of different elements of service output (i.e., selection by type of waste vs. non-selection) on cost efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the effects of regulations, input subsidies, their interactions and technical efficiency on cost efficiency and shows how a firm's cost efficiency relates to society's cost efficiency. It finds that from societal viewpoint, the average US public transit system is 45% cost efficient, a product of 84.4% technical efficiency and 53.5% allocative efficiency. From a transit system's viewpoint, it is 78.6%, 59.5% and 84.4% cost efficient when it internalizes input subsidies, regulations and both respectively. Additionally, it finds that the incentive tier regulation reduces capital-labor allocative distortion, the federal labor protection regulation increases nonlabor-labor allocative distortion and cost inefficiency, the incentive regulation increases cost efficiency, and the bus useful-life regulation increases cost inefficiency through increasing technical inefficiency. Together, in the sample of transit systems studied the regulations studied counteract the capital-labor allocative distortion from the subsidies and reinforce the nonlabor-labor allocative distortion from subsidies. • Paper presents a method to decompose cost efficiency based on regulations and subsidy. • It decomposes allocative and technical inefficiencies among their sources. • Transit systems have 51.7% cost efficiency, 88.4% technical efficiency and 58.5% allocative efficiency. • Those that internalize input subsidy compared to input regulations are more efficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A unique, new dataset of road maintenance contracts in Sweden is used (2004–2014; 623 observations). • A rich model controls for heterogeneity (including weather) prior to the estimation of efficiency. • Private contractors are found to be substantially cheaper than the state-run company. • Thus competitive tendering has worked but is not yet functioning optimally. • Possible explanations for the public/private gap are put forward. This paper uses econometric methods to study the cost efficiency of road maintenance provision in Sweden for the first time. The novelty lies in the application of econometric techniques to a new and rich panel dataset (73 contracts; 11 years, 2004–2014) with a wide range of variables and approaches to controlling for heterogeneity (including weather variation). The analysis is applied in the context of a sector where all road maintenance contracts are subject to competitive tendering, but with a state-run provider competing against private firms. The key focus is whether, even after competitive tendering, efficiency differences remain between the state provider and private entrants. We find that the state-run provider has significantly higher costs (between 8 and 20%) than private firms despite holding 60% of the market. The results suggest that substantial savings are possible through opening up road maintenance to the private sector through competition for the market; but that in Sweden, the tendering process is still not working optimally. Further research is needed to understand why the current cost gap persists between public and private providers, despite competitive tendering having been present across the whole market for several years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Context: Obesity has risen to epidemic proportions within the United States. As the rates of obesity have increased, so has its prevalence among patients undergoing adult spinal deformity (ASD) surgery. The effect of obesity on the cost efficiency of corrective procedures for ASD has not been effectively evaluated.Purpose: To investigate differences in cost efficiency of ASD surgery for patients stratified by body mass index (BMI).Study Design/setting: Retrospective review of a single-center ASD database.Patient Sample: Five hundred five ASD patients.Outcome Measures: Complications, revisions, costs, EuroQol-5D (EQ5D), quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), cost per QALY.Methods: ASD patients (scoliosis≥20°, SVA≥5 cm, PT≥25°, or TK ≥60°) ≥18, undergoing ≥4 level fusions were included. Patients were stratified into NIH-defined obesity groups based on their preoperative BMI: underweight 18.5< (U), normal 18.5 to 24.9 (N), overweight 25.0 to 29.9 (O), obese I 30.0 to 34.9 (OI), obese II 35.0 to 39.9 (OII), and obesity class III 40.0+ (OIII). Total surgery costs for each ASD obesity group were calculated. Costs were calculated using the PearlDiver database, which reflects both private insurance and Medicare reimbursement claims. Overall complications and major complications were assessed according to CMS definitions. QALYs and cost per QALY for obesity groups were calculated using an annual 3% discount up to life expectancy (78.7 years).Results: In all, 505 patients met inclusion criteria. Baseline demographics and surgical details were: age 60.8±14.8, 67.6% female, BMI 28.8±7.30, 81.0% posterior approach, 18% combined approach, 10.1±4.2 levels fused, op time 441.2±146.1 minutes, EBL 1903.8±1594.7 cc, and LOS 8.7±10.7 days. There were 17 U, 154 N patients, 151 O patients, 100 OI, 51 OII, and 32 OIII patients. Revision rates by obesity group were: 0% U, 3% N patients, 3% O patients, 5% OI, 4% OII, and 6% for OIII patients. The total surgery costs by obesity group were: $48,757.86 U, $49,688.52 N, $47,219.93 O, $50,467.66 OI, $51,189.47 OII, and $53,855.79 OIII. In an analysis of patients with baseline and 1 Y EQ5D follow-up, the cost per QALY by obesity group was: $153,737.78 U, $229,222.37 N, $290,361.68 O, $493,588.47 OI, $327,876.21 OII, and $171,680.00 OIII. If that benefit was sustained to life expectancy, the cost per QALY was $8,588.70 U, $12,805.72 N, $16,221.32 O, $27,574.77 OI, $18,317.11 OII, and $9,591.06 for OIII.Conclusions: Among adult spinal deformity patients, those with BMIs in the obesity I, obesity II, or obesity class III range had more expensive total surgery costs. When assessing 1 year cost per QALY, obese patients had costs 32% higher than nonobese patients ($224,440.61 vs. $331,048.23). Further research is warranted on the utility of optimizing modifiable preoperative health factors for patients undergoing corrective adult spinal deformity surgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A cocktail of land-based sources of pollution threatens coral reef ecosystems, and addressing these has become a key management and policy challenge in the State of Hawaiʻi, other US territories, and globally. In West Maui, Hawaiʻi, nearly one quarter of all living corals were lost between 1995 and 2008. Onsite disposal systems (OSDS) for sewage leak contaminants into drinking water sources and nearshore waters. In recognition of this risk, the Hawaiʻi State Department of Health (DOH) is prioritizing areas for cesspool upgrades. Independently, we applied a decision analysis process to identify priority areas to address sewage pollution from OSDS in West Maui, with the objective of reducing nearshore coral reef exposure to pollution. The decision science approach is relevant to a broader context of coastal areas both statewide and worldwide which are struggling with identifying pollution mitigation actions on limited budgets. • There is a direct trade-off between cost and pollution reduction. • Low-benefit alternatives poorly support critical ecosystem function in West Maui. • Highly cost-effective solutions also have limited feasibility, so a mix of options is required. • Open, accessible and current data can improve public policy decisions. • Decision Science is a transparent, powerful tool for managing coastal systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of universities in Taiwan are currently confronting problems of low enrolment rates and financial distress mainly as a result of low birth rates and over-expansion of the higher education industry over the last few decades. These universities were requested by the Taiwan Ministry of Education to find a solution, including shutting down problematic departments and merging with other institutions. As such, information on cost efficiency and the optimal size of universities is important for making appropriate decisions. A stochastic cost frontier approach is adopted in the study to measure the cost efficiency and identify optimal size of Taiwanese universities by considering the heterogeneity of university quality. The results of the study indicate a positive correlation between the optimal size and the university quality. Approximately 47 percent of the selected universities are identified as either over- or under-sized. Moreover, the magnitude of cost saving from efficiency improvement is found to be no smaller than that of size adjustment. Therefore, it is suggested that universities should put more effort into efficiency improvement while considering size adjustment. • The objective of study is to measure the cost efficiency and identify optimal size of Taiwanese universities. • A stochastic cost frontier approach is adopted in the study. • A positive relation exists between university quality and average cost. • The magnitude of cost saving from efficiency improvement is similar that from size adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) concrete involves two major concerns: (a) poor strength resulting in the EPS concrete unsuitable for structural applications, and (b) segregation of the ultra-light weight of EPS during mixing (EPS is approximately 100 times lighter than concrete). Though EPS displays high insulation (thermal conductivity ≈ 0.04 W/m-K), these issues limit its usage in concrete. This study aims to develop a lightweight-EPS cement composite (LECC) having enhanced insulating capacity as well as satisfactory compressive strength for structural applications. To mitigate the deteriorating effect of EPS on strength, the LECC is developed using the base material of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). EPS beads of 3–5 mm diameter are mixed in UHPC in five proportions by volume of 0, 16, 25, 36, 45% and the resulting composites are tested for mechanical and thermal properties. Microstructural characterization is performed using micro-computed tomography (μCT). The choice of the UHPC ingredients proportion is found successful in achieving a balance between an optimum viscosity and satisfactory workability for uniform dispersion of EPS, confirmed by the flow values and μCT results. McLachlan's general effective media approximation, based on percolation theory, is used to homogenize the composite and estimate its thermal conductivity with satisfactory accuracy. The LECC thus developed displays a strength 45 MPa with a corresponding density of 1677 kg/m3 and thermal conductivity of 0.58 W/m-K. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The butterfly diversity is high in farmland of Romania and Spain, and less in Sweden. • The coefficient of variance of transect-specific species richness declined beyond 800 m transect length. • The required sample size to record a 10% loss of species was less than 30 transects per region. • The time to be invested in field work differed between countries. • The final effort to document a change of a certain magnitude was similar between countries. Abstract In agro-ecosystems, environmental monitoring is fundamental to detect and survey changes related to land use change and management practices. Butterflies and moths have often been suggested as suitable indicators for monitoring environmental effects on biodiversity in farmlands. Here, we estimated the required sample size and monitoring effort necessary to run a Lepidoptera survey in European farmland, assessing in particular if monitoring investment would differ between representative bio-geographical regions. We operated linear 1-km long transect routes in farmland of Romania, Spain and Sweden from 2013 to 2015, and recorded butterflies and burnet moths (Papilionoidea, Zygaenidae). The transects were walked back and forth four times a season, and replicated yearly. The lepidopteran diversity was high in farmlands of Romania and Spain, but comparatively low in Sweden. The coefficient of variation (CV) of recorded species number differed between countries being lowest in Sweden and highest in Spain. In general, the CV dropped above a transect length of 400–800 m, thus indicating an increase in statistical power. Assuming a non-parametric test for matched samples, power calculations were conducted with the raw count data and with log-transformed count data for comparison. When using log-transformed data, the required sample size to detect an effect was less than 10 transects per country or region (in order to detect a 10% loss of species or a decrease of 30% in total abundance). Specific subgroups of species, e.g. protected species or specific indicator groups, showed a higher variance, thus requiring a higher sample size to detect effects ranging from 12 to 16 transects (equivalent to 21–29 working days per country and year). When using original, untransformed count data a considerably larger sample size would be needed. Actual time to be invested in field work differed between countries due to contrasting regional constraints and conditions. Nevertheless, the final monitoring effort in working days was similar between countries as the factors involved balanced out each other, in particular due to the differing year-to-year variations. Our study demonstrated the feasibility of an environmental monitoring programme in arable land using farmland butterflies across Europe. We present a suitable approach and guidelines as well as the necessary effort to be invested in future Europe-wide monitoring programmes of butterflies in agro-ecosystems, based on predictions of statistical power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industry 4.0 is revolutionizing decision making processes within the manufacturing industry. Among the technological portfolio enabling this revolution, the late literature has capitalized on the potential of data analytics for improving the production cycle at different stages, from resource provisioning to planning, delivery and storage. However, such a promising role of data analytics has been so far explored without a proper, quantitative inspection of the cost-improvement trade-off, nor has the process of acquiring sensors and extracting valuable information from their captured data formalized in a series of methodological steps. This paper introduces the Analyze, Sense, Preprocess, Predict, Implement and Deploy (ASPPID) methodology, an iterative decision workflow that spans from the acquisition of sensing equipment to the quantitative assessment of the contribution of their captured data to enhance the production step under focus. By placing the data scientist at the core of the workflow, this methodology helps improvement teams make informed decisions about which parts of the process need to be sensed, and how to exploit this information towards a verifiable improvement of the production cycle. The implementation of this methodology is exemplified in a real use case within the automotive industry, where the detection of defects in an annealing process can be modeled as a classification problem over a highly imbalanced dataset. Results obtained after applying the proposed ASPPID methodology show that the scrap ratio is reduced by sensing the correct part of the process at minimal investment costs, thus highlighting the crucial role of the data scientist in the management team of manufacturing plants. • ASPPID: an iterative data-based decision workflow for cost-efficiently sensing smart industries. • A comprehensive description of how data analytics should play a central role within the proposed methodology. • A real case study of the application of ASPPID to defect detection in a manufacturing industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study utilizes the data envelopment analysis technique with materials balance condition to evaluate the inherent trade-offs between environmental and cost outcomes among different types of energy consumptions in China's construction industry. Environmental and cost efficiency that is decomposed into technical efficiency and allocative efficiency are estimated, and the possible environmental impact and economic cost of reallocating energy inputs for improving efficiency are obtained. The estimation results show that: i) China's construction industry has the ability to produce its current level of industrial added value with fewer CO 2 emissions and fewer energy input cost through removing technical inefficiency and adjusting energy consumption structure. ii) There are 31.9% and 6.1% reduction potentials on CO 2 emissions if this industry attained the most environmentally efficient and the most costly efficient situation, respectively. iii) The average shadow cost of CO 2 emissions reduction in this industry is very low, suggesting that it should control CO 2 emissions through optimizing energy consumption structure and improving energy efficiency, instead of relying on end-of-pipe emission abatement technologies or emission trading systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transportation stage of the banana production chain has influence on banana quality and other lifecycle parameters. Certain factors, such as chilling injury (CI), have detrimental effects on bananas, leading to increased losses. The commonly used monitoring and evaluation methods, such as machine vision, face challenges in achieving real-time detection and are susceptible to environmental interference, leading to deviations in the results. Therefore, a flexible visible (Vis)/near-infrared (NIR) real-time sensing system (FVN) was developed for real-time monitoring of the CI status of bananas. The color space of bananas was analyzed and predicted based on the multiple linear regression (MLR) model, and the results showed that the coefficient of determination (R2 p) of a* of 0.97, and the residual prediction deviation (RPD) of 4.95, which indicated that the prediction of a* reached a high accuracy. The RPD values for the predictions of L* and b* exceeding 2.5 indicate that the FVN based on the MLR model could be applicable to the majority of market demands. The self-developed classification prediction model (SCP) exhibits evident advantages in predicting the occurrence and elapsed duration of CI, with prediction accuracies of 98.3 % and 95.5 %. In addition, a comprehensive comparative analysis of the FVN is carried out in terms of power consumption and cost, highlighting its great advantages. The application of FVN can effectively reduce the waste of bananas in the market supply chain, greatly alleviate the problem of unpredictable fruit chilling damage, and thus promote more sustainable and cleaner production in the banana industry. • Developing a flexible in-situ Vis/NIR sensing system for banana chilling injury. • Proposing a spectral sensing method for banana chilling injury. • Building a multiple linear regression based prediction model for banana chilling injury. • Improving chilling injury occurrence and duration by self-developed classification prediction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Environment life cycle cost (E-LCC) is rapidly becoming an important strategy for firms that deal with environmental issues. In this paper, the researchers use evolutionary game model to investigate how E-LCC control affects manufacturers' decision-making behavior. Under different LCC control choices, three competition market structures are formulated. Individual benefits are also calculated. Using an equilibrium solution, the researchers analyzed the effects of consumer environmental awareness (CEA), market capacity, and conventional-LCC (C-LCC) efficiency on equilibrium decisions. Results suggest that CEA can promote E-LCC strategy. However, it is negatively associated with C-LCC efficient level and market capacity. These findings help firms and governments choose strategies and environmental policies, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The impact of competition on the cost efficiency of conventional insurance and takaful sectors is examined. • The stochastic frontier cost function is applied. • The relationship between competition and efficiency is positive and supports the Quiet Life (QL) hypothesis. Abstract In recent years, competition in the insurance sector has increased due to the number of players added by the emergence of takaful. This paper examines the impact of competition on the cost efficiency of conventional insurance and takaful sectors in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries between 2009–2016 using a stochastic frontier cost function. Overall, results suggest that the relationship between competition and efficiency is positive and supports the Quiet Life (QL) hypothesis where managers in a less competitive market may utilise the market power of their firms and reduce their efforts. However, importantly, there are differences between takaful operators and conventional insurers in this respect. The relationship between competition and efficiency turns out to be negative where conventional insurance is concerned, and positive only for takaful. The positive relationship between competition and cost efficiency may encourage policy makers and regulators to support a competitive insurance industry which should improve efficiency. However, they should be aware of the degree of competition and use restrictions and requirement for market entry carefully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most previous bioenergy industry studies have focused on how to achieve a specific level of production. However, very few studies concentrate on the cost and the allocative and technical efficiency methods to achieve rational resource utilization. In light of the increase in the bioenergy industry's economic competitiveness within the energy market through proper allocation and utilization of available resources, this article analyzed the impact of country-specific and macroeconomic determinants of cost efficiency rate in the bioenergy industry in the EU28 zone. The fixed effects and random effect models have been used through the unbalanced data panel analysis method to examine the effect of EU28 region countries' development status and external economic determinants on the level of cost efficiency in the bioenergy industry in EU28. The findings show that the cost efficiency rate of the bioenergy industry among developing members are equal to those of developed members. The empirical results appear to suggest that cost efficiency has a different influence on the technical and allocative efficiency levels. It was found that capital cost, labor cost, GDP, inflation and interest rate affect the cost efficiency of the bioenergy industry in EU28 developing and developed members during the period of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Russia is the first and thus far only country that has separated ownership of electricity distribution and transmission and then, a few years later, reunified these services under one company. We examine the impact of these changes on the quality of service in electricity networks and the operating costs of electricity distribution companies. We find no evidence that ownership unbundling increased the service quality in electricity networks. Furthermore, our results indicate that ownership unbundling resulted in higher operating costs for electricity distribution companies. This study thus contributes to discussion on the importance of the balance of structural remedies and transparent independent regulation in the development of competitive energy markets in emerging market economies. Highlights • Cost efficiency and quality of the Russian electricity distribution is examined. • Ownership unbundling did not improve service quality in the electricity distribution. • Power losses decreased during the pre- and post-unbundling periods. • Ownership unbundling increased costs in the Russian electricity distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union project of Single European Sky initiated a reorganization of European airspace and proposed additional measures for air traffic management to achieve the key objectives of improving efficiency and capacity while at the same time enhancing safety. The concept of multiple remote tower operation is that air traffic controllers (ATCOs) can control several airfields from a distant virtual control centre. The control of multiple airfields can be centralised to a virtual centre permitting the more efficient use of ATCO resources. This research was sponsored by the Single European Sky ATM Research Program and the ATM Operations Division of the Irish Aviation Authority. A safety case was developed for migration of multiple remote tower services to live operations. This research conducted 50 large scale demonstration trials of remote tower operations from single tower operations to multiple tower operations for safety assessment by air navigation safety regulators in 2016. A dedicated team of air traffic controllers and technology experts successfully completed the safety assessment of multiple remote tower operations in real time. The implementation of this innovative technology requires a careful balance between cost-efficiency and the safety of the air traffic control in terms of capacity and human performance. The live trial exercises demonstrated that the air traffic services provided by the remote tower for a single airport and two medium airports by a single ATCO with ‘in sequence’ and ‘simultaneous’ aircraft operation was at least as safe as provided by the local towers at Cork and Shannon aerodromes. No safety occurrence was reported nor did any operational safety issue arise during the conduct of the fifty live trial exercises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

City residence development in China is increasing at an annual rate of 0.5–0.6 billion m 2 , causing vast increases in energy consumption by HVAC facilities and other appliances. Thus, governments and researchers are encouraging the use of renewable energy sources such as solar and geothermal energy in residential areas. However, high equipment costs and low energy conversion efficiency have reduced their acceptability to residents. Thus, researchers must determine the eco-feedback equilibrium point that achieves both economic benefit and thermal comfort. The objective of this study is to design and build a nearly zero-energy building (NZEB) with an HVAC system and an onsite solar photovoltaic system. Because HVAC systems typically account for more than 40% of total energy consumption in residences, a 24 h monitoring system was installed in the considered residential setting to measure the temperature, wind velocity, and energy in-out value with/without the HVAC system for several days in summer and winter. The thermal comfort period was analyzed and confirmed, and the air conditioner was switched on during thermal discomfort periods in one summer and one winter month. Temperature, humidity, wind, and energy data was recorded to calculate the average monthly energy consumption that provides all-day thermal comfort. Finally, two analyses were conducted; first, the real measured temperature after construction was recorded for thermal comfort analysis; second, the cost of renewable energy facilities and power consumption was converted to cost efficient rates to assess the feasibility of renewable energy input for the residence. The results of the experiment showed that the house could achieve better thermal comfort in summer than in winter. Contrary to our assumptions, energy consumption was highest in September and October rather than in July and August. Moreover, with a payback period of approximately 11 year, the cost-effectiveness is high for a house in the city of Guilin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure factors form the basis of reliable exposure estimates. The growing demand for population-specific exposure factors for complex exposure models is challenged by continuously declining response rates in surveys: Current survey methods clearly need a boost by user-friendly and efficient technologies. We compared the performance of a smartphone app to a paper questionnaire based on a survey on exposure factors that offered the choice between both methods and based on an observational study that investigated the performance of both methods. The development costs for smartphone app and paper questionnaire were comparable with 15′000 and 13′500 US-$, respectively. The cost efficiency for the paper questionnaire was much better than for the app, but model calculations show that the cost efficiency of the app improves considerably with adequate promotion and for larger surveys, especially for those with regular repetitions. Barcode scanning of consumer products by app saved time and effort of the participants and enhanced reliability. The app was able to attract the attention of younger adults between 20 and 40 years old: Thus, the limited representativity for younger age groups that sometimes is observed for paper-based surveys may be enhanced by including the option to use an app in a mixed-mode survey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clean water is crucial for sustainable economic and social development; however, around the world low water use efficiency and increasing water pollution have become serious problems. To comprehensively evaluate water use and wastewater treatment, this paper integrated bi-level programming (BLP) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) with a feedback variable to deal with poor output to rank DMUs using a super efficiency DEA. The proposed model was applied to a case study of 10 cities in the Minjiang River Basin to demonstrate the applicability and effectiveness, from which it was found that a water system can only be cost-efficient when both the water use and wastewater treatment subsystems are both cost-efficient. The comparison analysis demonstrated that the proposed model was more discriminating, and stable than traditional DEA models and was able to better improve total water system cost efficiencies than a BLP-DEA model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fourth Huaian pumping station is one of the second-stage pumping stations on the east route of the south-to-north water diversion project in China. The operation optimization problem of three pumps in the station is formulated to minimize the electricity cost while satisfying the flow demand. After analyzing the characteristics of the problem, a decomposition method is proposed to reduce the dimensionality of the optimization problem and thus the computation time. Simulation shows that the energy cost is reduced by 2.54 % compared with the benchmark scheduling based on the proposed method. In comparison with the decomposition/aggregation-dynamic programming method and the dynamic programming with successive approximation method, the proposed algorithm can effectively save electricity costs for Huaian pumping station. The case study shows that the cost efficiency comes from two aspects: demand shift from the time intervals with a high electricity price to those with a low electricity price, and the operation mode with high energy efficiency. The former is subject to the pumps’ capacity and the daily demand. The larger the pumps’ capacity is, the more demand can be shifted and thus the lower the cost is. The latter is subject to the pumps’ characteristics and the pump heads. The larger the head is, the smaller the difference for energy efficiencies with different blade angles are, and the smaller the energy savings with the optimal operation are. When the demand is high for a given pump head, demand shifting is the main reason, while the second aspect is the main reason when the demand is low. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The decision for choosing a manufacturing technology for a specific product is primarily based on cost in industrial practise. Current government regulations together with international projects like the Convention on Climate Change introduce further factors targeting a sustainably choice of manufacturing sequences. A typical measure is total energy embedded in a product based on the employed manufacturing route. Hence, industrial decision makers may have to assess both a cost- and energy-efficient production sequence. This results in the main challenge of an early estimation of manufacturing costs and energy consumption for choosing the most suitable production scenario. This is a crucial point to an industrial implementation of additive manufacturing (AM) and specifically for expensive and energy-intensive technologies for industrial metal processing like laser beam melting (LBM). This includes a consideration of both the entire process sequence embedded in a suitable production scenario and potential for product redesign derived from the use of LBM. This paper suggests two integrated models for cost and life cycle assessment in a cradle-to-gate framework focussing an industrial process sequence. Gear wheel manufacturing in a low volume or high variant production scale is chosen as a production scenario. Three industrial process sequences for gear production based on machining, hobbing, and LBM are investigated. Special focus is set to the impact of lightweight design on energy- and cost-efficiency of the manufacturing sequence. The key factors influencing cost- and energy-intensity are identified recommending a production scenario that is worthwhile for LBM for the small scale production of gears. It is concluded that both cost- and energy-efficiency have to be assessed with different process alternatives in order to identify a worthwhile scenario for LBM based on cost and life cycle assessment models. Lightweight design is identified as the most significant factor for reducing costs and energy-consumption that suggests employing lightweight design for cost- and energy-efficiency. The intended audience of this contribution are scientists, industrial applicants of LBM and conventional gear manufacturers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This paper explores the impact of regulation on insurers' operating costs. • The improvement of cost efficiency of insurance companies is based on the improvement of profitability. • Regulation improves the output and operational efficiency. This study is conducted based on the quasi-natural experiment of the "China Risk Oriented Solvency System" (Solvency II) regulatory policy that took effect in 2016. Using a Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) to calculate cost efficiency and a Difference-in-Difference (DID) model to explore the impact of regulation on the operating burden of insurance companies, this work finds that regulation has a significant positive impact on both the absolute costs and cost efficiency of insurers. These results indicate that although regulation increases the absolute costs of insurers, it improves the output and operational efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Co-incorporation of Ba and Ce onto Co drastically boosts NH 3 synthesis. • Optimized Ba/CoCe catalyst shows excellent activity, durability, and cost-efficiency. • BaCeO 3 perovskite formed during the synthesis is critical for promotion. • Co–BaCeO 3 interface shows moderate N 2 adsorption strength to activate N 2. • The reaction occurs via N 2 H 4 -mediated associative mechanism. The growing demand for ammonia (NH 3) as a carbon-free fuel and hydrogen carrier for decarbonization has increased interest in its synthesis under mild conditions to cope with the intermittent renewable supply of electricity and green hydrogen. Developing active and cost-efficient catalysts is crucial for achieving this goal. Herein, we investigated Ba and Ce incorporated Co (Ba/CoCe) as an efficient catalyst for ammonia synthesis. Our findings show that the optimal amount of Ba and Ce incorporation onto Co resulted in a drastic increase in catalytic activity compared to both pure Co and Ba or Ce singly promoted Co catalysts. Moreover, it exhibits superior catalytic performance and cost efficiency when compared to state-of-the-art benchmark catalysts. Co-incorporation of Ba and Ce forms BaCeO 3 perovskite during catalyst preparation. Co–BaCeO 3 interface bears a moderate adsorption strength of nitrogen, showing high adsorption–desorption reversibility of N atoms. Reaction studies coupled with structural characterizations give an insight into the presence of the kinetically favored associative mechanism, thereby significantly reducing the activation energy and boosting the NH 3 synthesis rate. This work provides insight into the design of non-noble metal catalysts for ammonia synthesis under mild conditions , and also contributes to the potential design of the perovskite family for catalytic purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the cost inefficiencies in the Tunisian water industry by controlling the heterogeneity bias. Two different cost-stochastic frontier models are tested to determine how observed and unobserved heterogeneity affect water utility districts' performance rankings and efficiency scores. The correction for heterogeneity significantly affected rankings by efficiency measures, and the two models yielded different results. The true fixed-effects model is more reliable than the pooled stochastic model. Then district's utility set still exhibits latent heterogeneity and significant cost inefficiencies are observed. The model estimates demonstrate the existence of economies of scale and density with respect to the size of the operation. Small district utilities exhibit economies of scale, while large district utilities exhibit diseconomies of scale. • Latent heterogeneity affects Tunisian water utilities' cost efficiency and ranking. • True fixed effects model incorporating exogenous factors produces accurate results. • The Tunisian water industry should be restructured to reduce costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

State Transport Undertakings (STUs) are key players in providing mass road transport in India. Given that they operate under high levels of government imposed regulatory constraints, it is imperative to study their efficiency levels. Given that capital is a relatively scarce resource in developing countries like India, it is important to obtain efficiency in the short-run where some inputs are fixed as well as over the long run, where all inputs are variable. The technique used for capturing efficiency is Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). A key possible limitation of DEA models based on physical inputs and outputs is that for an inefficient firm, reduction in some or all inputs may be recommended. It may often be desirable for an inefficient firm to increase some less expensive inputs while reducing the use of relatively expensive ones. Hence, when market price data is available, it is advisable to use the cost variant of DEA. Also, it is possible to determine variable cost efficiency in the short run when some inputs cannot be varied. Such inputs are referred to as “quasi-fixed” inputs. In this paper, we examine short and long term efficiencies of select bus companies in India known as State Transport Undertakings (STUs) over a period of 10 years. Fleet strength has been used as the quasi-fixed input. It is possible to ascertain, through a comparison of shadow price of the quasi-fixed input, vis-à-vis its market price, as to whether the quantity of this input is sub-optimally small or large. It is found that by adopting efficiency enhancing practices, STUs can cumulatively reduce their operating costs to the extent of 9123.35 million dollars. Also the tendency to minimize costs is found to be declining over time. In the short run some STUs are found to operate with a sub optimally low fleet size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chinese wood flooring and ceramic tile are the research objects in this study. Their energy consumption, the greenhouse gas emissions over their life cycles, and the cost of avoided emissions are analyzed. When wood flooring is used as an alternative to ceramic tile, a total of 0.16–2.85 t CO 2 eq/m 3 is avoided. The cost of GHG emission reduction is −3.42 to 82.28 RMB/kg CO 2 eq (−0.51 to 12.34 USD/kg CO 2 eq). The GHG emission reduction from the substitution increases and the cost of emission reduction decreases when the carbon stock in wood flooring is included (1a), the flooring is burned with energy recovery after replacement (2b), and the price of ceramic tile increases (4b). To achieve carbon emission reduction and obtain economic benefit from wood substitution, a reasonable approach for dealing with waste, prolonging the life span of wood flooring, and reducing cost should be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides empirical evidence on the impact of output quality on hotel efficiency. It demonstrates how ignoring quality can lead to erroneous efficiency estimates. The study uses stochastic frontier methodology and the model proposed by Battese and Coelli (1995) to estimate the efficiency of 838 hotels in Spain in the period 2009–2013. The key advantage of this methodology is its ability to estimate efficiency and identify factors that explain differences in efficiency in a single-stage sampling procedure. Estimates of cost efficiency, which only include the costs of higher quality, are compared to those of profit efficiency, which not only consider costs but also the revenues generated by higher quality. Results show that quality has a negative impact on cost efficiency and a positive one on profit efficiency. Thus, hotel management should implement strategies that increase the value of their services as a way to achieve sustainable competitive advantages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the growing pressure on aeronautical revenues, the increasing focus on airports’ financial performance and the sharpened state aid guidelines in Europe, it is valuable to have detailed insight in the determinants for airport profitability. This paper fills in a gap in scientific research by presenting the most important traffic and financial determinants for airport profitability, since the majority of scientific literature on airport (financial) performance focuses on efficiency rather than on profitability. Comprehensive airport traffic and financial data for 125 airports in Europe, the United States (US), Canada, Australia and New Zealand for the period 2010–2016 have been used to estimate several fixed-effects panel data regression on profit margin. Among others, the results show evidence for the fact that an increasing share of transfer passengers affects an airport’s profit margin. In addition, there is no sign of a general LCC effect and just limited evidence for the fact that the market share of specific LCCs affect airport profitability: only an increase in the market share of Southwest Airlines at major airports leads to lower profit margins. Moreover, a quadratic relationship between seasonality and profitability has been identified. It points at the existence of a certain optimal seasonality score. Below that tipping point, a decrease in seasonality leads to higher profit margins. On the contrary, a further reduction of seasonality after the tipping point leads to lower profit margins. This might indicate that no or limited seasonality is a result of capacity constraints and, in turn, leads to increasing operating costs related to congestion. Regarding financial variables, the results especially show significant positive effects of capital cost efficiencies on profitability. Those effects are especially large for airports in the US and for small regional airports. Labour productivity only plays a important role in the profitability of US airports. Finally, the results show that regional O/D airports largely depend on regional economic development and population growth, while the major airports rather depend on global economic development than on an increase in local demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cost of public transport has increased more than the supply in recent years in Sweden. One of the main cost drivers identified is peak-hour traffic. The major operating cost factors are the need for a large bus fleet for short periods during mornings and afternoons and the scheduling of drivers for shorter periods than the minimum working hour restriction. The objective of this paper is to study the effect of the number of buses needed (and hence the operating cost) during peak hours when adjusting the bus departure times. The study also analyses the increase in public transport supply and the number of boarding passengers if the cost reduction is re-invested. The analysis is based on case studies and simulated scenarios of possible adjustments in departure times for buses. The results show that by marginally adjusting the departure times, fewer buses are needed which leads to decreased operating costs. Further, the results show that the reduction in costs can be used to improve public transport in the area by expanding the supply of public transport in the long run. • A marginal adjustment in bus departure times results in a reduction in vehicles. • Fewer vehicles and drivers needed reduces the operating cost of public transport. • The cost reduction can potentially be re-invested to increase the supply. • An increase in supply leads to an increase in the number of boarding passengers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 1990s Great Britain embarked on one of the most radical railway reforms undertaken anywhere in the world, with full vertical separation and privatisation of all aspects of the railway and the introduction of competition throughout the sector. However, since then Britain's railways have been plagued with multiple problems, most notably a failure to control costs, as well as multiple franchise failures and problems with developing sensible timetables, with consequent impacts on train performance. Multiple attempts to reform the initial model have failed and in 2018/2019 a fundamental review was undertaken which culminated in the publication of the Williams–Shapps plan for rail which proposes a major step back towards vertical integration with the establishment of a new government owned organisation to take charge both of infrastructure and services, although the latter will be operated by private companies under concessions. This paper reviews the reasons behind the problems experienced by Britain's railways – which led to the review – before setting out the proposed reforms and discussing whether they might solve the problems and what some of the critical success factors might be. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides an original approach to empirically determine the optimal size of municipalities for efficient social service delivery in Italy, accounting for spatial spillover effects across municipalities as well as endogeneity between the output provided and its cost. A highly disaggregated and up-to-date database of Italian municipalities is used to estimate, through endogenous spatial frontier of Kutlu et al. (2020), the minimum costs. In municipalities with population ranging from 2000 to 3500 economies of scale in social service provision emerge, exhibiting cost-optimality. This outcome is completely ignored in some Regional government where financing criteria are based on historical, non-public, and ex-post repayment criteria. • Optimal size of municipalities in terms of cost efficiency. • Within and between differences in regional social service delivery cost. • Endogenous spatial frontier to account spatial spillover effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates potential savings of costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for a sample of 216 dairy farms in northern Germany using Data Envelopment Analysis. Tradeoffs between a cost-efficient and a GHG-efficient production are identified. For this purpose, an environmental-economic farm model is used, which allows ‘pricing’ the input with market prices and CO 2 equivalents, respectively. Uncertainty of CO 2 equivalents and volatility of input prices are taken into account and therefore efficiency scores are in the form of ranges. The results reveal that the sample farms are more GHG-efficient than cost-efficient. We estimate potential cost savings between 37.2% and 57.4% and potential savings in GHG emissions between 24.9% and 41.3%. Cost and GHG emission reductions are complementary across a wide range: by moving from the status quo to cost-efficient production, at least 87.5% of the GHG saving potential would be tapped. Unlocking the remaining reduction potential comes at a shadow price (abatement cost) of about €165/t CO 2 equivalent. From an input allocative point of view, a change from cost-efficient production to GHG-efficient production requires reductions in nitrogen use and an extension of diesel use. Compared to the sample average and the cost-efficient farms, GHG efficient dairy farms are characterized by a higher share of legumes and a longer effective lifetime of cows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses spatial econometric models to analyze the spatial distribution of Chinese airports from 2002 to 2012, taking into consideration the factors that explain the distribution of airports around the country. A cost function allowing for latitude and longitude is estimated based on spatial location, which leads us to advise the implementation of policies that take into account the spatial distribution of the airports. Results show that the development of airports in China needs to consider the spatial relationship among the many different regions of China. To improve the cost efficiency, airports should be located in more economically developed areas. Meanwhile, it also helps to reduce the cost when listing on the stock market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased forest areas and climate change mitigation are policy goals enhanced by expanding private forest ownership. This study shows transfer of land from farms owning forested acreage associated with low quality land and high production costs achieves such goals. Calculated cost efficiency scores show a large gap between the most and least efficient farms, and farms with forests are less cost efficient. Land reforestation through subsidy programs could replace income from agricultural production. We illustrate that farms from the applied FADN panel could reforest 45,000 hectares, binding about 0.5 mln tons of carbon annually without limiting food or feed supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy schemes that aim to stimulate the cultivation of biofuel crops typically ignore the spatial heterogeneity in costs and benefits associated with their production. Because of spatial heterogeneity in biophysical, and current agricultural production factors, potential gains from stimulating biofuel crops are non-uniformly distributed across space. This paper explores implications of this type of heterogeneity for the net benefits associated with different subsidy schemes. We present a simple framework based on discounted cash flows, to assess potential gains from introducing the notion of heterogeneity into stimulation schemes. We show that agricultural subsidy spending can be reduced in a Pareto efficient way and simultaneously improve the total stimulation potential of biofuel policies, when schemes: 1) are production based instead of land based; 2) accommodate differences in opportunity costs, and 3) target sites where subsidies for conventional agricultural land-use types are high. These results are robust for a range of different bioenergy prices and the relative gains of addressing these key elements in policy compared to conventional stimulation schemes increase with lower bioenergy prices, and are largest when low prices coincide with high emission reduction ambitions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]