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Recent studies provided strong evidence that deficits in cholinergic signaling cause disorders of cognition and affect conscious processing. Technical advances that combine molecular approaches, in vivo recordings in awake behaving animals, human brain imaging, and genetics have strengthened our understanding of the roles of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the modulation of cognitive behavior and network dynamics. Here, we review the emergent role of nAChRs in high-order cognitive processes and discuss recent work implicating cholinergic circuits in cognitive control, including conscious processing. nAChRs are oligomers composed of several categories of subunits, which determine their physiology and pharmacology in the brain. Cholinergic signaling through nAChRs modulate cognition and conscious awareness. The contribution of nAChRs oligomers to high-order cognitive processing has been investigated using genetically modified mice, which revealed, among other findings, that β2-subunit-containing nAChRs modulate sleep and anesthesia as well as several high-order cognitive functions. In humans, administration of nicotine ameliorates cognitive impairment such as deficits in attention, social interactions, and working memory and thus has a positive action on high-order cognitive processes. Conversely, repeated exposure to nicotine creates nicotine addiction and, consequently, loss of cognitive control and neural circuit impairments. Human genetic studies have identified variants in nAChRs that predispose individuals to neuropsychiatric diseases such as schizophrenia. Genetic, molecular, and mechanistic studies of the contribution of specific nicotinic subunits to mental disorders and neurodegenerative diseases is a promising strategy to unravel the involvement of nAChRs in the development of these pathologies and could provide targets for developing efficient pharmacological treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to examine the role of reinvestment - the propensity to consciously monitor and control actions (movement specific reinvestment) and to consciously monitor and evaluate decision making processes (Decision specific reinvestment) while driving in everyday risky scenarios. The study also aimed to evaluate the association between reinvestment and previously validated driver attitude measures. Fifty one participants completed a series of questionnaires (Driving Self-Efficacy Scale, Driver Attitude Questionnaire, Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale, Decision Specific Reinvestment Scale) after which they completed a test phase in a driving simulator. In the test phase, driving scenarios included roads with different markings (i.e., double yellow, wide centrelines, wire rope barriers, Audio Tactile Profiled markings) and alerting scenarios (i.e., police car present, high crash risk area sign, reduced speed zone). Results revealed that on risky roads (wide centrelines), participants with a high propensity for decision specific reinvestment drove slower than those with a low propensity. Driver experience, attitudes towards speeding and scores on the Decision Reinvestment subscale of the Decision Specific Reinvestment Scale significantly predicted speed choice. More experienced participants with higher scores on the Decision Reinvestment subscale were more likely to drive slower and participants with worse attitudes towards speeding were likely to drive faster. Participants with a low propensity for movement specific reinvestment (specifically, Movement Self-Consciousness) reduced their speed to a greater extent than those with a high propensity when driving in the police car scenario. There was some evidence to suggest that high decision specific and movement specific reinvesters were more likely to be involved in crashes and receive driving infringements. The current study is the first to demonstrate a significant relationship between reinvestment and driving. The implications of these findings for road safety are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Via three experiments, we investigated heightened anxiety's effect on the offline planning and online correction of upper-limb target-directed aiming movements. In Experiment 1, the majority of task trials allowed for the voluntary distribution of offline planning and online correction to achieve task success, while a subset of cursor jump trials necessitated the use of online correction to achieve task success. Experiments 2 and 3 replicated and elaborated Experiment 1 by assessing movement-specific reinvestment propensity and manipulating the self-control resources of participants. This allowed more detailed inference of cognitive resource utilisation to tease apart the effects of conscious processing and distraction-based anxiety mechanisms. For the first time, we demonstrate that: anxiety-induced online-to-offline motor control shifts can be overridden when the need for online correction is necessitated (i.e., in jump trials); anxiety-induced online-to-offline shifts seem to be positively predicted by conscious processing propensity; and optimal spatial efficacy of limb information-based online correction seems to require cognitive resources. We conclude that long-standing definitions of limb information-based online correction require revision, and that both conscious processing and distraction theories appear to play a role in determining the control strategies of anxiety induced upper limb target directed aiming movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While neuroscientific research on perceptual awareness has traditionally focused on the spatial and temporal localizations of neural activity underlying conscious processing, recent development suggests that the dynamic characteristics of spatiotemporally distributed neural activity contain important clues about the neural computational mechanisms underlying conscious processing. Here, we summarize recent progress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given scarce external validity available to date concerning the reinvestment construct, the aim of this four-study research project was to further explore the validity of the Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale and the Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale, using psychometric and behavioral measures. Study 1 showed that deliberative participants had a higher reinvestment tendency than intuitive participants. Study 2 showed that reinvestment was linked to self-consciousness, rumination, perfectionism, and had satisfactory test–retest reliability. Moreover, it provided some potential insights on the development of reinvestment due to parental criticisms. Study 3 indicated that high decision reinvestors performed worse than their low decision reinvestor counterparts in a visual search task under pressure. Study 4 showed that older participants had a lower reinvestment score, and that reinvestment was associated with higher motor imagery ability, challenging the idea that reinvestment can only be seen as detrimental to performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Traditional theories of motor learning (e.g., Fitts & Posner, 1967 ), along with certain contemporary psychological perspectives (e.g., Weiss & Reber, 2012; Wulf, 2013 ), postulate that expert performers must relinquish paying conscious attention to, and/or attempting to exert control over, their bodily movements in order to achieve optimal performance. Challenging such largely unquestioned conceptual approaches, however, is an emerging body of evidence (e.g., see Montero, 2010; Shusterman, 2011 ) which indicates that ‘somatic reflection’ (i.e., a conscious focus on bodily movement) is an important mediator of continuous improvement (i.e., the fact that certain performers continue to improve their skills even after becoming experts) at the elite level of sport. The present position paper seeks to elucidate and resolve this apparent paradox concerning the role of bodily awareness in expertise. Design Literature review and position statement. Method To achieve this latter aim, we draw on empirical evidence (e.g., from research on somatic attention) and theory (e.g., Shusterman's, 2008, theory of body consciousness) to elucidate the role of bodily awareness in facilitating continuous improvement at the elite level of sport. Results and conclusion In doing so, we sketch some theoretical and practical implications of Shusterman's (2008, 2011, 2012) theory of ‘somaesthetics’ for contemporary research on expertise in sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objective: This research project aimed to explore the construct validity of the Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale (DSRS); more specifically, its links with stress and coping appraisals. Design: Study 1 validated the DSRS and the Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale (MSRS) to the French language, in order to examine the construct validity of the DSRS using the MSRS, the Preference for Intuition and Deliberation (PID) inventory and the Melbourne Decision-Making Questionnaire (MDMQ). In addition, sex differences in reinvestment were investigated. Study 2 examined stress and coping appraisals of high and low reinvesters. Method: In study 1, 379 athletes completed the DSRS, MSRS, PID, and MDMQ. In study 2, 100 handball players, classified as low and high reinvesters, completed surveys aimed to assess stressor intensity, stressor perceived controllability, coping effectiveness, subjective performance and coping strategies with the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport over three games. Results: In study 1, we found that intuitive athletes scored lower on the DSRS in comparison to deliberative athletes, whilst no difference was found for the MSRS. Convergent and discriminant validity was illustrated with the subscales of the MDMQ. No sex differences were found regarding reinvestment. In study 2, findings showed that low reinvesters scored higher than high reinvesters in terms of stressor perceived controllability, coping effectiveness and subjective performance. Discussion: In addition to confirmation of construct validity, these findings strengthen our understanding of how high decision reinvesters perceive a pressured situation. Key applications are derived from our findings informing coaches and athletes in offsetting the negative effects of reinvestment on sport performance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Our study had two objectives. First, we examined the relationship between dispositional sport-specific mindfulness and rowing performance. Second, we investigated whether dispositional sport-specific mindfulness moderated the moderating effect of conscious processing on the anxiety-performance relationship. Cross-sectional field study. Participants took part in a competitive race and completed a survey after the race. Rowers (N = 270) completed post-race measures of mindfulness, rowing specific reinvestment, perceived performance, anxiety and demographics. We also determined actual rowing performance. Mindful refocus was positively associated with perceived and actual performance, whilst non-judgemental thinking was only positively associated with perceived performance. Rowing specific Conscious Motor Processing (RS-CMP) moderation effect on the anxiety-performance relationship was attenuated by high levels mindful awareness, this was true for both actual and perceived performance. Rowing specific movement self-consciousness (RS-MSC) moderation effect on the anxiety-performance relationship was moderated by non-judgmental thinking but only for perceived performance. Our findings provide initial support that dispositional mindfulness may benefit performance under pressure and that this may be through the attenuation of reinvestment processes. Furthermore, the result demonstrated that mindful awareness and non-judgmental thinking may act on distinct reinvestment processes. • Mindfulness did not moderate the reinvestment-performance relationship. • Mindful awareness attenuated conscious motor processing-performance relationship. • Mindful refocus moderated neither rowing reinvestment processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research suggests that reinvestment (i.e. conscious control of movements) is associated with inefficient information processing and compromised movement strategies in older adults during walking. We examined whether reinvestment propensity is associated with conservative gait behaviour in older adults. Trait Reinvestment propensity was measured using the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale (Chinese version) (MSRS-C). Thirty-eight older adults were categorized into 'Low Reinvestor Group' (LRG) (MSRS-C < 27) and another 38 were categorized into 'High Reinvestor Group' (HRG) (MSRS-C > 38). There were no significant differences in physical and cognitive abilities between groups. Participants were asked to walk along a 6-m straight level-ground walkway at a self-selected pace under conditions of no instruction (Baseline), instruction related to self-focus on body movements (BI), and instruction related to the external environment (EI). No significant difference was found in gait behaviour between LRG and HRG at Baseline. However, significant changes, indicative of conservative gait patterns, were found in LRG when given instructions that prompted them to consciously control their body movements. No changes were observed in HRG under external-related instructions that are assumed to reduce conscious motor processing and improve motor performance. Our findings contradict previous views on the association between trait reinvestment propensity and compromised motor performance in older adults, which potentially reduces justification for reducing trait reinvestment propensity in older adults. We also suggest that MSRS is insensitive to reflect the degree of conscious control during gait tasks. Our findings also implicate the potential detrimental effect of applying inward-focus-related instructions in healthcare rehabilitation settings. • Conservative gait patterns were discovered in older adults with low reinvestment propensity when given inward-focus-related instructions. • No changes were observed in older adults with high reinvestment propensity under external-related instructions. • Results contradict previous views on the association between trait reinvestment propensity and compromised motor performance in older adults. • Healthcare practitioners should aware of the potential detrimental effect of applying inward-focus-related instructions in rehabilitation settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]