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To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.05.001 Byline: Kenneth H. Beck (a), Kimberly M. Caldeira (b), Kathryn B. Vincent (b), Kevin E. O'Grady (c), Eric D. Wish (b), Amelia M. Arria (b) Keywords: Cannabis; Marijuana; Drug abuse liability; Drug addiction; College students; Mental health Abbreviations: APA, American Psychiatric Association; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; CES-D, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; CLS, College Life Study; CUD, Cannabis Use Disorder (DSM-IV); SAMHSA, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Abstract: Few studies have investigated the association between the social context of cannabis use and cannabis use disorder (CUD). This longitudinal study of college students aimed to: develop a social context measure of cannabis use; examine the degree to which social context is associated with the transition from non-problematic cannabis use to CUD; and, examine the association between social context of cannabis use and depressive symptoms. The analytic sample consisted of 322 past-year cannabis users at baseline. Four distinct and internally consistent social context scales were found (i.e., social facilitation, emotional pain, sex seeking, and peer acceptance). Persistent CUD (meeting DSM-IV criteria for CUD at baseline and 12 months later) was associated with using cannabis in social facilitation or emotional pain contexts, controlling for frequency of cannabis use and alcohol use quantity. Students with higher levels of depressive symptoms were more likely to use cannabis in an emotional pain or sex-seeking context. These findings highlight the importance of examining the social contextual factors relating to substance use among college students. Author Affiliation: (a) University of Maryland School of Public Health, Department of Public and Community Health, College Park, MD 20742, USA (b) University of Maryland, Center for Substance Abuse Research (CESAR), 4321 Hartwick Rd, Suite 501, College Park, MD 20740, USA (c) University of Maryland, Department of Psychology, 3147 Biology/Psychology Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA

The study is about social cohesion in rural communities and how this interacts with Information and Communications Technology (ICT). Social cohesion is considered in terms of both system integration and social integration. System integration includes business and cultural organisations, civil society and communal spaces on and offline, which can provide bridging mechanisms to bring together disparate social groups. Social integration refers to more informal mechanisms of inclusion, including social networks, a sense of belonging, commitment to the common good. The paper considers these elements of social cohesion in relation to the intertwining of on and offline relationships by examining two contrasting rural communities in Northern Scotland. The paper concludes that ICT can play very different roles in social cohesion for different social and cultural groups as well as for different kinds of locational communities, but that ICT is becoming an integral part of rural social relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: College students have high rates of heavy drinking and other risky behaviors, but little is known about trends in their use of cocaine. In this longitudinal study of 1253 college students at one large, public university in the mid-Atlantic region, annual interviews assessed opportunity to use cocaine, cocaine use, and DSM-IV criteria for cocaine abuse and dependence. Follow-up rates exceeded 87% annually. Data from the first four years of college were analyzed to detect changes over time and possible gender differences. By their fourth year of college, 36% wt of students had been offered cocaine at least once in their lifetime, and 13% wt had used cocaine. Annual prevalence of cocaine use increased significantly over time (4% wt in Year 1 to 10% wt in Year 4) and remained similar across genders. Opportunities to use cocaine were significantly more prevalent for males than females during Years 2 through 4. Cocaine use given opportunity increased significantly over time for both males and females. Among 243 cocaine users, females (n =113) had more serious use patterns than males, with higher average frequency of use (18.39 vs. 8.83days during the peak year of use, p <.05) and greater likelihood of meeting criteria for cocaine dependence (9.3% vs. 2.5%, p <.05). Gender differences in typical cocaine dosage were not apparent. College administrators and health providers should be aware of the prevalence of cocaine use among student populations and design strategies to address the problem. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Introduction: Many college students engage in nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NPS) because they believe it provides academic benefits, but studies are lacking to support or refute this belief.Methods: Using a longitudinal design, 898 undergraduates who did not have an ADHD diagnosis were studied. Year 3 GPA (from college records) of four groups was compared: Abstainers (did not engage in NPS either year; 68.8%); Initiators (NPS in Year 3 but not Year 2; 8.7%); Desisters (NPS in Year 2 but not Year 3; 5.8%); and Persisters (NPS in both years; 16.7%). Generalized estimating equations regression was used to estimate the association between NPS and change in GPA, controlling for sex and Year 2 GPA.Results: GPA increased significantly within Abstainers (p<0.05), but did not change significantly within the other groups. Overall, the relationship between NPS pattern group and change in GPA was not statistically significant (p=0.081). NPS was generally infrequent, but Persisters used more frequently than Desisters (11.7 versus 3.4days in Year 2) and Initiators (13.6 versus 4.0days in Year 3, both ps<0.001), controlling for sex and Year 2 GPA.Conclusions: We cannot rule out the possibility that NPS prevented declines in GPA, but we can conclude that students who engaged in NPS showed no increases in their GPAs and gained no detectable advantages over their peers. The results suggest that prevention and intervention strategies should emphasize that the promise of academic benefits from NPS is likely illusory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: Despite the relatively high prevalence of marijuana use among college students, little information exists regarding health outcomes associated with different use patterns or trajectories. Methods: Seven annual personal interviews (Years 1–7) were administered to 1253 individuals, beginning in their first year in college. Growth mixture modeling was used to identify trajectories of marijuana, alcohol, and tobacco use frequency during Years 1–6. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the relationship between marijuana use trajectories and several Year 7 health outcomes, holding constant Year 1 health, demographics, and alcohol and tobacco use trajectories. Results: Six marijuana use trajectories were identified: Non-Use (71.5%wt of students), Low-Stable (10.0%wt), Late-Increase (4.7%wt), Early-Decline (4.3%wt), College-Peak (5.4%wt), and Chronic (4.2%wt). The six marijuana trajectory groups were not significantly different on Year 1 health-related variables, but differed on all ten Year 7 health outcomes tested, including functional impairment due to injury, illness, or emotional problems; general health rating; psychiatric symptoms; health-related quality of life; and service utilization for physical and mental health problems. Non-Users fared significantly better than most of the marijuana-using trajectory groups on every outcome tested. Chronic and Late-Increase users had the worst health outcomes. Conclusions: Marijuana use patterns change considerably during college and the post-college period. Marijuana-using students appear to be at risk for adverse health outcomes, especially if they increase or sustain a frequent pattern of use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Aims: Drunk driving is a major public health concern, but drugged driving has received little attention. This study examines drugged driving and riding with a drugged driver in a college student sample, in terms of prevalence, age-related trends, race/sex differences, overlap with drunk driving, and risk for alcohol and marijuana dependence. Methods: Students (N =1194) ages 19–22 were interviewed annually for 3years about past-year frequency of drugged driving, riding with a drugged/drunk driver, drunk driving, access to a car, and alcohol/drug dependence. Annual follow-up rates were excellent (88–91%). Repeated measures analyses were conducted using generalized estimating equations (GEE). Results: One in six (17%wt) 19-year-olds with access to a car drove drugged in the past year; prevalence remained stable through age 22. Drugged driving was more prevalent among males (p <.001) and whites (p <.01). Riding with a drugged driver varied by race and sex (overall prevalence 28%wt at age 19), was stable from age 19 to 21, and decreased by age 22 (p <.05). Annually, half of drugged drivers also drove drunk (ranges between 47% and 60%). Both drugged and drunk driving were independently associated with increased risk for alcohol dependence, holding constant age, sex, and race. Drunk driving did not add to the risk for marijuana dependence in the context of drugged driving. Conclusions: The prevalence of drugged driving is similar to drunk driving among college students. Both are strongly associated with underlying alcohol and drug dependence. Prevention and treatment implications are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Microdosing (MD) with hallucinogens is the act of taking a subperceptual dose of a psychedelic substance, such as lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, or mescaline. The present study examined frequency of MD among a college student screening sample group and whether MD was associated with other drug use. [Extracted from the article]

Introduction: College students are at higher than average risk for nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NPS). A commonly identified motive among students who engage in NPS is to improve grades. Several research studies have observed that NPS most likely does not confer an academic advantage, and is associated with excessive drinking and other drug use. This study documents the proportion of the general college student population who believe that NPS will lead to improvements in academic performance.Methods: This study gathered online survey data from a large, demographically diverse sample of college students to document the prevalence of perceived academic benefit of NPS for improving grades and to examine the association between such belief and NPS.Results: Overall, 28.6% agreed or strongly agreed that NPS could help students earn higher grades, and an additional 38.0% were unsure. Students with a higher level of perceived academic benefit of NPS and more frequent patterns of drinking and marijuana use were more likely to engage in NPS, even after adjustment for a wide range of covariates.Conclusions: The results underscore the need for interventions that simultaneously correct misperceptions related to academic benefit and target alcohol and marijuana use to reduce NPS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several studies have linked marijuana use with a variety of health outcomes among young adults. Information about marijuana's long-term health effects is critically needed.Methods: Data are from a ten-year study of 1253 young adults originally recruited as first-year college students and assessed annually thereafter. Six trajectories of marijuana use during college (Non-Use, Low-Stable, Early-Decline, College-Peak, Late-Increase, Chronic) were previously derived using latent variable growth mixture modeling. Nine health outcomes assessed in Year 10 (modal age 27) were regressed on a group membership variable for the six group trajectories, holding constant demographics, baseline health status, and alcohol and tobacco trajectory group membership.Results: Marijuana trajectory groups differed significantly on seven of the nine outcomes (functional impairment due to injury, illness, or emotional problems; psychological distress; subjective well-being; and mental and physical health service utilization; all ps<.001), but not on general health rating or body mass index. Non-users fared better than the Late-Increase and Chronic groups on most physical and mental health outcomes. The declining groups (Early-Decline, College-Peak) fared better than the Chronic group on mental health outcomes. The Late-Increase group fared significantly worse than the stable groups (Non-Use, Low-Stable, Chronic) on both physical and mental health outcomes.Conclusions: Even occasional or time-limited marijuana use might have adverse effects on physical and mental health, perhaps enduring after several years of moderation or abstinence. Reducing marijuana use frequency might mitigate such effects. Individuals who escalate their marijuana use in their early twenties might be at especially high risk for adverse outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study tested the hypothesis that college students' substance use problems would predict increases in skipping classes and declining academic performance, and that nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NPS) for studying would occur in association with this decline. A cohort of 984 students in the College Life Study at a large public university in the US participated in a longitudinal prospective study. Interviewers assessed NPS; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) cannabis and alcohol use disorders; and frequency of skipping class. Semester grade point average (GPA) was obtained from the university. Control variables were race, sex, family income, high school GPA, and self-reported attention deficit hyperactivity disorder diagnosis. Longitudinal growth curve modeling of four annual data waves estimated the associations among the rates of change of cannabis use disorder, percentage of classes skipped, and semester GPA. The associations between these trajectories and NPS for studying were then evaluated. A second structural model substituted alcohol use disorder for cannabis use disorder. More than one-third (38%) reported NPS for studying at least once by Year 4. Increases in skipping class were associated with both alcohol and cannabis use disorder, which were associated with declining GPA. The hypothesized relationships between these trajectories and NPS for studying were confirmed. These longitudinal findings suggest that escalation of substance use problems during college is related to increases in skipping class and to declining academic performance. NPS for studying is associated with academic difficulties. Although additional research is needed to investigate causal pathways, these results suggest that nonmedical users of prescription stimulants could benefit from a comprehensive drug and alcohol assessment to possibly mitigate future academic declines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Substance use disorder is a serious health problem that tends to manifest in late adolescence. Attempting to influence targetable risk and protective factors holds promise for prevention and treatment. Survey data from 1253 college students (48.5% male, 26.9% non-White) were used to investigate the independent and combined effects of two prominent factors, sensation seeking and parental monitoring, on the probability of alcohol and/or cannabis dependence during the first year of college. In multivariate analyses that controlled for high school use, gender, race, mother''s education, and importance of religion, retrospective reports by the student of parental behavior during the last year of high school indicated that higher levels of parental monitoring had a direct effect on reducing risk for alcohol dependence during the first year of college, but not on cannabis dependence. High levels of sensation seeking were associated with increased risk for both alcohol and cannabis dependence. No interaction effects were found. The results extend prior findings by highlighting influences of pre-college parental monitoring and sensation seeking on the probability of alcohol and/or cannabis dependence during the first year of college. The findings also suggest that these two factors are useful in identifying college students at high risk for alcohol and/or cannabis dependence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background: The relationship between serious drug involvement and risk for unemployment is well recognized, but few studies have prospectively examined this relationship among college students. This study used longitudinal data to examine the association between drug use patterns during college and the likelihood of employment post-college, holding constant sociodemographic variables and personality characteristics. Second, we estimate the prevalence of alcohol and other drug use disorders among employed individuals. Methods: Data were derived from the College Life Study. Participants entered college as traditional students and were assessed annually for six years, regardless of continued college attendance. Analyses were restricted to 620 individuals no longer enrolled in school by Year 6. Results: Using multinomial regression modeling, persistent drug users (i.e., used illicit drugs (other than marijuana) and/or nonmedical prescription drugs every year they were assessed during the first four years of study) were significantly more likely than non-users to be unemployed vs. employed full-time post-college. Persistent drug users and infrequent marijuana users were also more likely than non-users to be unemployed vs. employed part-time. In Year 6, 13.2% of individuals employed full-time and 23.7% of individuals employed part-time met DSM-IV criteria for drug abuse or dependence during the past year. Conclusions: If confirmed, the results of this study suggest that persistent drug use among academically achieving young adults might increase risk for post-college unemployment. More research is needed to understand the processes underlying this association. Further attention should be directed at managing substance use problems among recent college graduates who have secured employment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The prevalence of substance use disorders (SUD) and aspects of the help-seeking process among a high-risk sample of 946 students at one large public university were assessed in personal interviews during the first 3 years of college. After statistically adjusting for purposive sampling, an estimated 46.8%wt of all third-year students met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition criteria for SUD involving alcohol and/or marijuana at least once. Of 548 SUD cases, 3.6% perceived a need for help with substance use problems; 16.4% were encouraged by someone else to seek help. Help-seeking was rare among SUD cases (8.8%) but significantly elevated among individuals who perceived a need (90.0%) or experienced social pressures from parents (32.5%), friends (34.2%), or another person (58.3%). Resources accessed for help included educational programs (37.8%), health professionals (27.0%), and 12-step programs (18.9%). College students have high rates of substance use problems but rarely recognize a need for treatment or seek help. Results highlight the opportunity for early intervention with college students with SUD. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study reports the prevalence of cannabis use disorders (CUD) and other cannabis-related problems in a large cohort (n =1253) of first-year college students, 17 to 20 years old, at one large public university in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. Interviewers assessed past-year cannabis use, other drug use, and cannabis-related problems (including DSM-IV criteria for CUD). The prevalence of CUD was 9.4%wt among all first-year students and 24.6% among past-year cannabis users (n =739). Of those endorsing any CUD criteria, 33.8% could be classified as diagnostic orphans. Among 474 “at-risk” cannabis users (≥5 times in the past year), concentration problems (40.1%), driving while high (18.6%) and missing class (13.9%) were among the most prevalent cannabis-related problems, even among those who endorsed no CUD criteria. Placing oneself at risk for physical injury was also commonly reported (24.3%). A significant proportion of cannabis-using college students meet diagnostic criteria for disorder. Even in the absence of disorder, users appear to be at risk for potentially serious cannabis-related problems. Implications for prevention, service delivery, and future research are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Extensive research has examined alcohol use context and motives among undergraduates, but less is known about where, when, and why graduate students drink. The current study aimed to describe the motives and situational context of graduate student alcohol use, identify demographic and program characteristics associated with alcohol use motives and context, and assess how alcohol use motives and context are associated with alcohol use behavior. A sample of master's and doctoral-level students who drank during the past month (n = 2091; 63% female) completed an online survey. An exploratory factor analysis yielded two situational context factors: drinking in social situations (e.g., with friends, at a bar) and non-social situations (e.g., alone, at home). Graduate students most frequently endorsed social and enhancement drinking motives. Results of multivariate linear regression models showed that age, sex, race/ethnicity, and international student, marital, parental, and employment status were all associated with motives and context. Drinking for enhancement and drinking to cope were the motives most strongly associated with increased alcohol quantity and frequency, respectively. Drinking in social contexts was positively associated with alcohol quantity and frequency, and drinking in non-social contexts was positively associated with alcohol use frequency but inversely related to alcohol quantity. Graduate students who drink for enhancement reasons and in social situations might be at increased risk for higher quantity alcohol use, or graduate students who drink for coping reasons and in non-social situations might be at increased risk for more frequent alcohol use. Future longitudinal research is needed to explore whether drinking in certain contexts and with certain motivations is predictive of alcohol problems during and after graduate school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]