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Purpose This study documented the prevalence of mental health problems among transgender youth in Canada and made comparisons with population-based studies. This study also compared gender identity subgroups and age subgroups (14–18 and 19–25). Methods A nonprobability sample of 923 transgender youth from Canada completed an online survey. Participants were recruited through community organizations, health care settings, social media, and researchers' networks. Mental health measures were drawn from the British Columbia Adolescent Health Survey and the Canadian Community Health Survey. Results Transgender youth had a higher risk of reporting psychological distress, self-harm, major depressive episodes, and suicide. For example, 65% of transgender 14- to 18-year olds seriously considered suicide in the past year compared with 13% in the British Columbia Adolescent Health Survey, and only a quarter of participants reported their mental health was good or excellent. Transgender boys/men and nonbinary youth were most likely to report self-harm and overall mental health remained stable across age subgroups. Conclusions Although a notable minority of transgender youth did not report negative health outcomes, this study shows the mental health disparities faced by transgender youth in Canada are considerable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study examined biological and psychosocial variables that are relevant to the etiology of gender-variance. Data were collected over the internet from 2277 participants of either gender who identified as transsexual, other gender-variant, and not gender-variant. We found number of gender-variant relatives, handedness, emotional abuse, finger length ratios (2D:4D), and systematizing significantly predicted Adult Gender-Variance among participants of both genders. Adult Gender-Variance was also predicted by number of older brothers among birth-assigned males. No significant differences were found in extreme right-handedness or mental rotation. No significant interaction effects were found with sexual orientation. While these findings are generally consistent with past research, there were limitations of the internet-based methodology, including a non-representative sample. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This article reviews research on biological and psychosocial factors relevant to the etiology of gender-variant identities. There is evidence for a genetic component of gender-variant identities through studies of twins and other within-family concordance and through studies of specific genes. Evidence that prenatal androgens play a role comes from studies that have examined finger length ratios (2D:4D), prevalence of polycystic ovary syndrome among female-to-male transsexuals, and individuals with intersex and related conditions who are more likely to have reassigned genders. There is also evidence that transsexuals have parts of their brain structure that is typical of the opposite birth-assigned gender. A greater likelihood of non-right-handedness suggests developmental instability may also contribute as a biological factor. There is a greater tendency for persons with gender-variant identities to report childhood abuse and a poor or absent relationship with parents. It is unclear if this is a cause or effect of a gender-variant identity. Parental encouragement of gender-variance is more common among individuals who later develop a gender-variant identity. We conclude that biological factors, especially prenatal androgen levels, play a role in the development of a gender-variant identity and it is likely that psychosocial variables play a role in interaction with these factors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]