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The application of Internet of Things (IoT) technology and its ongoing evolution have drawn a lot of interest to the field of intelligent sports referee system research. In this article, we present a novel VAR-YOLOv8 model that significantly improves the accuracy and robustness of error detection in football matches by combining MPDIoU, a residual local feature network (RLFN), and a video assistant referee system "VARS" module. Experimental results show how well the model can handle dense gates and rapidly changing parameters. It also does a good job of recognizing and classifying different types of faults in difficult situations. The concept uses Internet of Things (IoT) technology to enable real-time data collection and processing, providing strong technical support for smart sports refereeing systems, significant practical application value and many advancement opportunities. Through testing utilizing the SoccerNet dataset, the VAR-YOLOv8s demonstrate accomplished an normal IoU@0.5 of 80.5 and mAP@0.5 of 31.0 amid the testing handle. To move forward the insights and productivity of shrewd arbitrage frameworks, future investigate will center on optimizing show execution and exploring unused information enlargement and combination procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sports- and recreation-related concussions are a common injury among children. Sports officials (SOs) and athletic trainers (ATs) are integral to setting the stage for safe play and managing concussions when they occur, and significant numbers of both groups have completed the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's HEADS UP online concussion training course. However, the utility of the course for these audiences has not been assessed. We hypothesized that sports officials' and athletic trainers' concussion-related knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions will improve from pre- and post-test after completing CDC's HEADS UP online concussion training course. Method: Respondents' concussion-related knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions were assessed both before and after taking the training course. Differences between pre- and post-test scores were calculated based on the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Z-score or McNemar's test. Effect sizes were interpreted. Results: The SOs and ATs who participated in the HEADS UP online training had a high level of concussion knowledge before taking the course: 90% or more of respondents could identify the correct response for at least seven of the 13 knowledge questions in the pre-test. Still, the course was effective at improving the respondents' knowledge about return-to-play protocols and concussion reporting. Further, SOs and ATs demonstrated improvement in their concussion-related attitudes and behavioral intentions between the pre- and post-test. Conclusion: SOs' and ATs' concussion knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions improved immediately following completion of the CDC HEADS UP online training. Future research could also focus on the long-term retention of this type of training. Practical Applications: This study provides insight into how to better focus concussion-related educational programs to fit SOs' and ATs' needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision-making is the most important skill for sporting officials, consequently, assessment of this skill is becoming increasingly popular in the literature. There is considerable interest in the use of video-based methods to assess decision-making of officials in controlled, off-field environments. Systematic review of the literature examining video-based testing in sporting officials. Using the keywords "umpire", "referee", "sport officials", "decision making" and "judgement", a comprehensive search was conducted in February 2018 on electronic databases (SPORTDiscus, Medline, PsycInfo, Google Scholar). Inclusion criteria included full text articles from January 2000 to January 2018 published in peer-reviewed journals. Only 'central' or 'field' officials were included in this review (i.e., assistant referees, touch judges were excluded). The search yielded 27 studies. The majority of articles were specific to soccer officials. Overall, video-based testing appears to be a valid measure of decision-making differentiating between performance levels. This review highlighted a high degree of variability among the methods applied, with varied participation groups, clip type used, and influences on decision-making. The reporting of reliability and implementation of transfer tests was rarely incorporated in the research. Video-based testing appears to be a valid measure of decision-making of officials in an off-field, controlled environment. This research area would be advanced through further investigation into sports other than soccer, examination of transfer to match performance testing, reporting the reliability of the test, reporting decisional accuracy rather than solely number of decisions, and investigation of additional video modes. • Video-based testing appears to be a valid measure of decision-making for officials. • Transfer to on-field performance is a key consideration for off-field testing. • Efficacy of new video modes must be assessed for off-field decision-making testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Communication is central to managing perceptions of fairness and performance in sport officiating. Most of the few studies that focus on sport official communication have been limited to 'one-way' impressions and decision communication and tend to neglect more dynamic, dialogic interactions with players. This study explored sport officials' identity concerns and motivations and ways officials adapt and accommodate 'face' in interactions with players. Design Qualitative methodology. Method Video elicitation interviews using an allo-confrontation approach were conducted with 8 male and 6 female sport officials from 7 different team sports representing novice to professional levels. Goffman's (1959; 1967) dramaturgical sociology of interaction was used to frame identity projections and context in officials' communication management strategies. Findings Analysis of interview transcripts revealed three distinct ways officials' face concerns emerge and are managed in interactions with players including (1) anticipating players' reactions and modifying presentation of self, (2) asserting and preserving the officials' own face, and (3) giving and restoring players' face. When incompatible interactional exchanges occur in sport matches, officials use different defensive and corrective face-work strategies to assert, re-establish, or appropriate face statuses for themselves and players. Conclusions The findings highlight the importance of dynamics and context in sport official communication. They also emphasise the need to maintain relationships, preserve and protect identities, whilst being strategic in interactions with players. We conclude that new conceptualisations are needed in sport official communication to build on current 'one-way' concepts that dominate officiating research and training. Highlights • Official-player interactions are largely unspoken co-constructions. • Officials adapt and modify self-presentation according to context. • Officials assert and maintain face for themselves and players. • Officials have enduring styles to manage face protection for self and players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives The purpose of this study was two-fold. Firstly, to examine the measurement/factorial validity and invariance of the Referee Self-Efficacy Scale (REFS) among Norwegian soccer referees. Secondly, extending scale validation, we also tested a structural model in which a second-order version of the REFS was modelled to mediate a set of theoretically informed antecedents and outcomes. Design Cross-sectional. Method One hundred and eleven Norwegian elite referees and 81 non-elite referees completed an electronic questionnaire measuring expected antecedents and outcomes of perceived self-efficacy in the role as referees. Results Analyses provided support for the first – and second order versions of the REFS scale as well as for scale invariance. Further, a task goal and experience as referee related positively to referee positive affect, mediated by referee efficacy. Unexpectedly, physical preparation related directly to positive affect, whereas no mediation effects or direct effects for mental preparation and ego goal were observed. Conclusions Measurement/factorial validity and invariance of the REFS were fully supported. Validity of the scale in mediation model by Guillén and Feltz (2011) was only partly supported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Soccer referees are challenged by physiological, professional, and mental demands which require them to exercise self-control for optimal performance. We applied the strength model of self-control (e.g., Baumeister & Vohs, 2016; Baumeister et al., 1998) to examine the relationship between self-control strength and performance in real matches. Design and methods Sixteen soccer referees ( M age = 30.06 yrs, SD  = 7.38) completed a trait self-control scale. Then, over 2–4 matches they completed measures of daily hassles prior to the match and state self-control prior to and after the match. Personal, situational and performance indices were also collected. Data were analyzed using several statistical procedures, including hierarchical linear modeling. Results The referees exhibited higher levels of trait self-control compared with professional soccer players and the general population. Their state self-control scores were also high. A noticeable decrease (10% or more) in state self-control strength (i.e., ego depletion ) was evident in almost half of the matches. Experience of daily hassles and travel time to the match were related to lower pre-match self-control. Ego depletion was associated with self-reported match difficulty and was negatively related to self-rated match performance. Conclusions The findings are in line with previous studies and the strength model of self-control, highlighting the importance of self-control strength in soccer refereeing. Practitioners and Referee Unions should support referees in planning match day routines to maintain self-control strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Through parasport, adults and young athletes with disability often report increases in well-being and related psychosocial perceptions. While researchers often attribute these benefits to the positive social experiences that go along with sport participation, optimal parasport experiences have not been comprehensively defined. Applying a conceptualization of the experiential aspects of ‘participation’ across disability settings (Martin Ginis, Evans, Mortenson, & Noreau, 2017) we sought to generate an evidence-informed framework of optimal parasport participation. Design/Method The framework was developed through a multi-step process that involved establishing the scope and purpose of the framework, synthesizing existing literature, and constructing the framework alongside stakeholder insights. The latter step entailed four phases based on AGREE-II reporting criteria: (a) Phase 1, where propositions about quality experiences were derived from the literature synthesis, (b) Phases 2 and 3, where we developed a provisional framework informed by stakeholders using an expert round-table ( n  = 16) and an online survey ( n  = 80), and (c) Phase 4, where the framework was refined through an online expert panel including researchers and sport administrators ( n  = 20). Results The resulting hierarchical framework focuses on 25 conditions across the physical environment, sport activities, and social environment of parasport organizations as precursors to quality experiences that, in turn, reinforce quality participation. Quality experience stands at the core, defined as a feeling state derived from athletes’ appraisals of whether their experiences satisfy one or more of their values and needs across six elements: belongingness, autonomy, challenge, mastery, engagement and meaning. Conclusions The ‘Quality Parasport Participation Framework’ directs future research examining parasport athletes' subjective experiences, and sets forth provisional guidelines for promoting quality experiences within parasport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective The number of football-related studies has increased considerably in recent years, in part due to the worldwide popularity of this sport. However, in what concerns football refereeing, literature is still very scattered. Thus, the purpose of this study was to provide an updated integrative review of studies addressing refereeing within football. Design Our study is an integrative review of the football referee literature. Method Using the keywords “Soccer Referee”, “Football Referee” and “Football Association Referee,” a review was conducted through September 2016, using the Web of Knowledge and Scopus databases. Results Literature search resulted in 267 full text articles which were grouped into seven themes and 54 sub-themes. Themes and sub-themes were generated through an inductive and deductive process of data analysis. Conclusion In addition to summarising the current state of the literature, we also outline possible paths for future research on the topic of football refereeing. In fact, the results of our review suggest that there is a need to extend the scope of empirical research in refereeing to include various other topics, as well as a need to further develop theoretical models regarding the performance of football referees, which could be used in their training and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives We examined the importance of perceptual-cognitive skills in association football referees. Design and method Using a novel approach, elite (n = 22) and sub-elite referees (n = 21) completed an extended test battery of perceptual-cognitive measures. Participants were assessed using both domain-generic (e.g., sustained attention; working memory) and domain-specific (e.g., pattern recognition) perceptual-cognitive measures within the domain of refereeing. Results A multivariate analysis of variance revealed significant differences between groups on the following domain-specific perceptual-cognitive skill measures, with elite referees performing significantly better than their sub-elite counterparts: overall decision-making performance; anticipation; and recall capacity. No significant differences were reported between the elite and sub-elite referees on domain-generic perceptual-cognitive skill measures. A stepwise discriminant analysis highlighted that a combination of five predictor variables, including four domain-specific and one domain-generic perceptual-cognitive skill measure, significantly discriminated elite and sub-elite referees, with 90.7% of referees being classified correctly. Conclusions Our findings shed light on the skills underpinning perceptual-cognitive expertise in referees and are consistent with the existing findings on expert outfield players. Implications are discussed with regard to testing and training programs for referees and across other professional domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives The decisions made by officials have a direct bearing on the outcomes of competitive sport contests. In an exploratory study, we examine the interrelationships between the decisions made by elite netball umpires, the potential contextual and environmental influences (e.g., crowd size), and the umpires' dispositional tendencies – specifically, their propensity to deliberate and ruminate on their decisions. Design/Method Filmed footage from 60 England Netball Superleague matches was coded using performance analysis software. We measured the number of decisions made overall, and for home and away teams; league position; competition round; match quarter; and crowd size. Additionally, 10 umpires who officiated in the matches completed the Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale (DSRS). Results Regression analyses predicted that as home teams' league position improved the number of decisions against away teams increased. A model comprising competition round and average league position of both teams predicted the number of decisions made in matches, but neither variable emerged as a significant predictor. The umpire analyses revealed that greater crowd size was associated with an increase in decisions against away teams. The Decision Rumination factor was strongly negatively related to the number of decisions in Quarters 1 and 3, this relationship was driven by fewer decisions against home teams by umpires who exhibited higher Rumination subscale scores. Conclusions These findings strengthen our understanding of contextual, environmental, and dispositional influences on umpires' decision-making behaviour. The tendency to ruminate upon decisions may explain the changes in decision behaviour in relation to the home team advantage effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Visual experience plays an important role in facilitating referee decision-making. Video training can be used to train these perceptual-cognitive skills in discrete scenarios, for instance in foul situations in football, but is less suitable in other instances such as when seeking to make decisions in open-play scenarios due to a lack of representativeness. Recent technological advances enable the use of virtual reality (VR) to replicate game situations in a controlled and realistic manner. It is however not yet known how representative behaviour in VR would be of behaviour on-field in the natural environment. The aim of the study was therefore to examine the degree to which visual behaviour of football referees in virtual reality would reflect behaviour found when adjudicating matches on-field. Sub-elite football referees completed decision-making tasks in three experimental conditions: on-field (in a real match), in virtual reality and when observing video footage. Across the three environments we compared decision-making performance, visual behaviour (including search rate, fixation duration, and head movements) and the user experience of the referees. Results revealed that behaviour in the VR environment was indistinguishable from that on-field. In contrast, visual-motor behaviour when observing video footage was markedly different to that found on-field (and in VR). The results show that visual-motor behaviour in VR is representative of that found on-field and therefore suggests that VR offers promise as a representative training environment for sports officials to improve on-field performance in the natural environment. • Visual-motor behaviours in VR are indistinguishable from on-field behaviours. • Watching videos less representative for on-field visual-motor behaviours. • Football referees positively evaluate training in VR. • VR provides a representative and enjoyable training environment for referees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective We examined whether a short-term, off-field training intervention using different video speed manipulations (i.e., normal speed, 75%, and 125% of normal speed), enhances the offside decision-making performance of international level assistant referees. Moreover, we explored the optimal sequence of various video speed manipulations during training. Design All groups were exposed to a pre- and posttest. During acquisition, the assistant referees assessed 60 offside video simulations during three different training sessions. The order of the video speed conditions varied during the training intervention depending on participant group assignment: increasing speed group (n = 33; 75%–100%–125%); decreasing speed group (n = 33; 125%–100%–75%); and arbitrary speed group (n = 30; 100%–75%–125%). Results First, the decision-making accuracy was higher during the presentation of real time and faster video conditions when compared to the slower video condition. Second, only the decreasing speed group improved their offside decision-making performance from pre- to posttest. Conclusions We conclude that scheduling a decreasing video speed sequence throughout training is more beneficial to enhance learning than increasing or arbitrary speed conditions. Although it is too premature to replace existing training protocols that typically use constant speed videos, the present study offers evidence to suggest that training interventions for elite performers that decreasing the speed of exposure during the learning process may have some benefits over regular speed presentations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sports officials (e.g., referees, umpires, judges) can experience distress from a multitude of sources, including episodes of verbal and physical abuse from spectators, coaches, and athletes. Little is known about the impact of this abuse on mental health (MH) outcomes and intentions to quit, however. As such, the primary aims of this study were to survey the prevalence and frequency of abuse in sports officials and to examine relationships between abuse, distress, and subsequent MH and intentions to quit outcomes. Survey data were collected from 438 Gaelic Games match officials. Of these, 94.29% and 23.06% had experienced verbal and physical abuse respectively during their career. Verbal abuse was mostly experienced a couple of times a season (reported by 43.83% of officials) or every couple of games (31.48%), whereas physical abuse was predominantly experienced once or twice in a career (85.15%). Structural equation modelling was used to assess three alternative models that proposed the relationship between experiences of abuse, and MH and intentions to quit outcomes to be either 1) direct, 2) indirect, fully mediated by distress, or 3) both direct and indirect, partially mediated by distress. For verbal abuse, only the direct and indirect effects model achieved acceptable fit and significantly explained variance in mental wellbeing (9.4%), anxiety (15.2%), depression (15.6%), and intentions to quit (19.1%). For physical abuse, though higher distress was associated with poorer MH and greater intentions to quit, none of the models fully explained the relationships between all variables. These findings demonstrate, for the first time, relationships between abuse, subsequent distress, and MH outcomes. We highlight the urgent need to develop evidence-based psychological interventions to tackle abuse, manage conflict, and support the MH needs of sports officials. [Display omitted] • Prevalence of verbal and physical abuse experiences were 94% and 23%, respectively. • Less experienced match officials experienced more frequent verbal abuse. • More frequent verbal abuse lowered mental wellbeing and increased intentions to quit. • Abuse-induced distress led to poorer mental health and increased intentions to quit. • There is an urgent need to provide mental health support for sports officials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well established that elite football referees possess superior anticipatory skills in specific game scenarios such as when assessing foul situations. Referees might also have better anticipatory skills in other important scenarios such as when observing a long pass. In these often-occurring situations, a referee has to use visual information to anticipate the outcome of the pass, in particular to foresee any potential infringements that might occur when players battle for ball possession. However, little is known about if and how football referees might anticipate outcomes in these scenarios. The aim of the current study was therefore to analyse the visual anticipatory behaviour of football referees when long passes occur during actual football matches. Elite (N = 4) and sub-elite referees (N = 12) officiated an actual football match while wearing a mobile eye-tracker to analyse their gaze behaviour when long passes occurred (N = 196). The results revealed differences in the way that the elite and sub-elite referees tracked the ball and anticipated the outcome of the ball trajectories. The elite referees used a lower search rate (1.3 vs 1.8 fix/s; p < .05) and were more likely to direct their gaze towards the ball during the moment of kick (77 vs 52%; p < .05) and the early flight-phase of the pass (68 vs 45%; p < .05), and subsequently produced earlier anticipatory eye movements to the player(s) receiving the ball (at 50% vs 60% of the ball flight; p < .05). This earlier anticipation may help the elite referees to better pick-up relevant information about the receivers that could be vital in making adjudications about any potential infringement when the ball does arrive. Referee education programs can use the current study to highlight the importance of visual search behaviour and help referees to adapt a strategy that is beneficial for long-pass situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a novel Bayesian network model for assessing referee bias with respect to fouls and penalty kicks awarded. The model is applied to the 2011-12 English Premier League season. Methods: Unlike previous studies, the model takes into consideration explanatory factors which, if ignored, can lead to biased assessments of referee bias. For example, a team may be awarded more penalties simply because it attacks more, not because referees are biased in its favour. Hence, we incorporate causal factors such as possession, time spent in the opposition penalty box, etc. prior to estimating the degree of penalty kicks bias. Results: We found fairly strong referee bias, based on penalty kicks awarded, in favour of certain teams when playing at home. Specifically, the two teams (Manchester City and Manchester United) who finished first and second appear to have benefited from bias that cannot be fully justified by the explanatory factors. Conversely Arsenal, a team of similar popularity and wealth and who finished third, benefited least of all 20 teams from referee bias at home with respect to penalty kicks awarded. Conclusion: Among our conclusions are that, in contrast to many previous studies, being the home team does not in itself result in positive referee bias. More importantly, the model is able to explain significant discrepancies of penalty kicks bias into non-significant after accounting for the explanatory factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives To develop a valid and reliable video-based decision-making test to examine and monitor the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires. Design Validation assessments with test re-test reliability. Methods A video-based decision-making test was developed from a pool of 156 video-based decision-making situations. Australian football umpires (n = 56) and players (n = 45) participated in two separate phases of analysis. In phase one, players completed a test re-test reliability assessment with a 100 video-clips. Results indicated 24 clips were a reliable measure of decision-making performance. In phase two, umpires completed a test re-test protocol with 80 clips, 24 of which were the reliable clips identified by the player cohort in phase one. These 24 clips provided a measure of construct validity. Face and content validity were assessed by skill acquisition specialists, expert umpire coaches, and umpires. Results From each of phase one and two of the reliability assessment, 24 clips were found to have a kappa value greater than 0.30, providing a total of 48 reliable video-clips. Construct validity was supported, with the umpire group performing significantly better than the player group on the 24 clips presented to both groups on each testing occasion. Face and content validity were also demonstrated. Conclusions This investigation demonstrated the ability prospectively to determine reliability and validity of the video-based decision-making test designed specifically for Australian football umpires. Establishing the validity and reliability of the video clips ensures future investigations can accurately and consistently measure the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: The aim of the study was to question whether uniform color had any impact on judging tackles in football. Design: Fifty-two videos showing the tackles of an achromatic and a chromatic team were individually presented in random order. The chromatic team's uniform color was changed to blue, green, red and yellow. Methods: Football referees and participants with a high and minor level of understanding of the rules of football judged the roughness of each tackle. Results: By analyzing all four colors, results did not reveal any impact of uniform color. Restricting analysis to blue and red showed that referees and participants with a high level of understanding of the rules judged tackles from behind more harshly for players wearing red. Conclusions: The study found some empirical support for associating red with aggression and emphasized a differential impact of blue versus red uniforms for tackles committed from behind. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The COVID-19 pandemic provides a natural experimental framework to comprehensively test the effect of crowds on both referees and players. We examine this from a North American perspective, using data from three major leagues: the National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL) and National Hockey League (NHL). In all three leagues in the 2020–2021 season, matches were played either in empty stadiums or before diverse audience sizes. We find that the lockdown affects NBA and NFL results, by lowering the prospects of winning and the expected scoring points of the home team, when games are played without an audience. Conversely, the lockdown does not substantially influence the outcomes of NHL games. We also examine the effect of audience size on game outcomes using historical observations from the past decade, when no lockdown measures were in force. Interestingly, a larger audience size increases the chance of winning and the expected scoring points of the visiting team for NFL games. No significant effect of the audience size on match outcomes is observed for NBA or NHL games. Regarding referee decisions, spectators do not significantly influence referee calls of NHL matches. As for NBA and NFL, the lockdown significantly increases the total number of referee calls but does not prompt more biased decisions towards either of the teams. Finally, a larger audience leads to referee calls more favourable to the visiting team for NFL games. These results extend the literature regarding crowd pressure on the behaviour of players and officials, with an indication that the specific sports activity has a pivotal role in the response to a cheering audience. • Referees' decisions and teams' performances of North American leagues for Pre- and Post-COVID-19 period are examined. • Lockdown deteriorates the performance of the home NBA and NFL teams, but does not affect the performance of NHL teams. • Lockdown does not affect referee bias, but spectators have an impact on referees' decisions for NFL and NBA matches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: The purpose of this study was to develop and calibrate the Sources of Acute Stress Scale for Sports Officials (SASS-SO) using the Rasch model. Design and method: This was a cross-sectional, self-reported study. Of the 3300 participants with valid (no missing) data, 90.1% were males, ranging in age from 19.6 to 57.8 yrs., and serving as sports officials from 3 to 24 yrs. The officials represented high school, collegiate, and professional athletic associations representing 13 sports throughout the United States. Results: Using the Rasch model, the level of sources of stress item difficulty and individual''s level of acute stress were estimated. Model-data fit was determined by Infit and Outfit statistics (≥0.5 and ≤1.5). A rating scale was also evaluated for proper functioning. With the exception of two items, the model fit the data well. Infit and Outfit measures were within the appropriate range supported the unidimensional structure of the SASS-SO. The two most severe sources of acute stress were “I made an incorrect call” and “I was out of position.” The two least severe sources of acute stress items were “I received verbal abuse from players” and “My supervisor/evaluator was present.” Conclusions: The probability thresholds and item response ordering showed that the rating scale functioned well. Although item parameters had slightly inappropriate coverage, the ability parameters were reasonably varied. The results of this study support the use of the SASS-SO in assessing sources of acute stress among sports officials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objectives: Research has identified a decline in home advantage (HA) in a number of professional leagues since World War 2 (WW2). The purpose of the current study was to identify whether the decline in HA in English and Scottish Professional Football Leagues is mirrored by the radical transformation in the training of referees post-WW2, thus providing a new insight into the cause of HA. Design: A longitudinal quasi-experimental design. Methods: HA was calculated for each team at the end of every season for the four English and the Scottish Premier League post-WW2. We also compiled a list of events, statements and quotations to illustrate the dramatic change in the way referees have been trained (physically and psychologically), and assessed over the same period. Results: We observed a systematic decline in HA in professional English and Scottish leagues post-WW2, but with the steepest decline observed in lower divisions with smaller crowds. Of the factors thought to influence HA, crowd support appears the most consistent with these observations. Crowds are known to influence referees'' decisions to favour the home side. However we argue that improved training of referees since WW2 has contributed to an improved ability to make objective decisions and a greater resilience to crowd influence, which explains the decline in HA but also accounts for the steeper decline observed with smaller crowds. Conclusions: The continued existence of HA, and the less steep decline observed in top leagues suggests that referees'' judgements are still not immune to the influence of larger crowds. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background: Gaze behaviors are often studied in athletes, but infrequently for sport officials. There is a need to better understand gaze behavior in refereeing in order to improve training and education related to visual search patterns, which have been argued to be related to decision making (Abernethy & Russell, 1987a). Objective: To examine gaze behaviors, decision accuracy, and decision sensitivity (using signal detection analysis) of ice hockey referees of varying skill levels in a laboratory setting. Design: Using an experimental design, we conducted multiple t-tests. Method: Higher-level (N = 15) and lower-level ice hockey referees (N = 15) wore a head-mounted eye movement recorder and made penalty/no penalty decisions related to ice hockey video clips on a computer screen. We recorded gaze behaviors, decision accuracy, and decision sensitivity for each participant. Results: Results of the t-tests indicated no group differences in gaze behaviors; however, higher-level referees made significantly more accurate decisions (both accuracy and sensitivity) than lower-level referees. Conclusion: Higher-level ice hockey referees are superior to lower-level referees on decision making, but referees do not differ on gaze behaviors. Possibly, higher-level referees process relevant decision making information more effectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objectives: This study examined the longitudinal factor invariance of problem-focused, disengagement-focused, and seeking social support coping to provide an unbiased estimation of the mean-level and differential stability of coping with longitudinal confirmatory factor analyses with mean structure. This study also examined different patterns of longitudinal coping utilization with Latent Class Growth Modeling (LCGM). Method: Soccer referees (N =227), aged from 15 to 53 years, completed a French version of the Ways of Coping Checklist at three times over an entire season. Results: The structure of the coping dimensions could be assumed longitudinally invariant. The mean-level utilization of problem-focused coping did not change significantly over the season despite the presence of test–retest instability. Both disengagement and seeking support coping utilization have significantly decreased over time while displaying moderate test–retest stability. Results of LCGM revealed that, while most referees did not change their utilization of problem-focused coping, two subgroups have respectively increased and decreased their use of problem-focused coping. Two subgroups decreased significantly their use of both disengagement-oriented and seeking support coping whereas one subgroup maintained the same level of utilization. Conclusions: Results indicated that coping utilization displayed both trait-like and state-like properties, differing for distinct subgroups of referees. This research provided further evidence for the need of moving beyond the sole reliance on traditional analyses of change to recast the trait-like versus state-like debate on coping into a more idiosyncratic-nomothetic framework. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary: This paper presents the findings of a systematic review of guidelines on preventing heat illness in sports participants and officials. University library databases and Internet sources were searched for guidelines pertaining to community-based sports, and occupational health and safety, using a comprehensive list of search terms. Guidelines were included if they met the criteria of English language, full text and fully referenced, and dealt specifically with, or could be extrapolated to, prevention of heat illness in sports participants and officials. Guideline inclusion was evaluated by two independent reviewers, who also independently assessed guideline quality using the AGREE instrument. Common guideline themes were identified by synthesis and recommendations for each theme were extracted. A synthesis of recommendations for common themes was then undertaken. Thirteen eligible guidelines were included. Thirty-two guidelines were excluded, as they did not provide sufficient information on construction or references. The methodological quality of the included guidelines was variable. The evidence-base of the guidelines varied, reflecting primary and secondary research. While five common heat-illness prevention themes were identified (fluid intake, heat limits, clothing, acclimatisation, precautionary interventions), variable recommendations were made pertaining to these themes. This potentially reflected the variable underpinning evidence of the guidelines. This review highlighted the need for better quality guideline construction related to defensible and transparent evidence sources regarding sports participation in hot weather. The synthesised recommendations cautiously provide a framework of current best evidence upon which sporting organisations internationally can base strategies for safe participation in the heat. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Most studies on sport officials ignore the variance of the data in terms of individual differences. Here we highlight the need to focus on these differences in refereeing as the main point and goal of the current review. We argue that the study of individual differences is important for referee selection, development and performance evaluation. We present the available research on differences related to referee communication styles, types of interactions, and game management. We regard expertise and experience level as a key contributor to individual differences. Given the gap in research around the in-group variance, we discuss new directions for research and further recommendations for the field. We suggest that the areas in which more research and practice will inform our selection, training, and evaluation processes are communication and personal communication style, while having more flexibility in applying different refereeing styles to facilitate performance in different contexts. • Most studies on sport officials ignore the variance of the data in terms of individual differences. • Individual differences are important for referee selection, development and performance evaluations. • We review the differences in referee communication styles, interaction and game management. • New directions for research and recommendations for the field are presented and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this research was to study the preoccupations assistant referees had to participate in decision making about duels during football games. Research adopted a phenomenological framework to investigate the assistant referees' lived experiences in order to understand their activity when they judged duels in match. This study investigated six professional football matches. Researchers conducted a participatory observation of the refereeing team before each match. Twelve self-confrontation interviews with each assistant referee of each match were conducted in order to make him/her describing his/her unfolding lived experience during the match. In case of players' duels, the perception of contextual cues enabled the assistants to appraise the occurring of a decision process with the central referee. For the assistants, the occurring of a decision process with the central referee meant his priority to intervene in the adjudication of duels, while the absence of decision process with the central referee meant for the assistants the possibility to intervene. The assistants adjusted their way of judging duels to how the central referee judged the previous ones. The participation of assistants in decision making about duels depends on their preoccupations concerning the central referee's priority. The way assistants perceive the central referee's contextual judgment shapes the way they adjudicate duels. A latent intention to coordinate with the central referee, in relation with their collaborative tasks, is embedded in their preoccupations. Our results are a platform to develop further research about the referees' collective activity. • Assistants have other preoccupations than judging off-side during the match. • Assistants identify contextual cues to intervene in the refereeing of duels. • Assistants have preoccupation with the central referee's priority to make decision. • Assistants appraise whether there is a decision process happening with the referee. • Assistants adjust their way of judging duels to how the central referee judges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]