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Food proteins represent a vital source of self-assembling peptides, with hydrogels constructed through peptide self-assembly exhibiting widespread utility in the food sector. This review aims to provide a recent research progress in preparation and characterization of hydrogels from food-derived peptides. Also, the self-assembly mechanisms and the impact of factors are discussed. Presently, food-derived self-assembling peptide-based hydrogels can be synthesized using either physical or chemical methodologies and evaluated through methodologies such as microscopic, spectroscopic, and rheological assessment. The self-assembly of food-derived peptides is hierarchically formed by non-covalent interactions, including hydrogen bond and hydrophobic interactions, where variables such as temperature and pH intricately modulate the assembly mechanism. The association between peptide sequence and hydrogel structure in the self-assembly mechanism is also discussed, which remains to be further explored. The present review contributes to application of food-derived peptide-based hydrogels in the fields of food, nutrition and material sciences. [Display omitted] • The preparation methods of self-assembling peptide-based hydrogels are summarized. • The characterization methods of self-assembling peptide-based hydrogels are presented. • The self-assembly mechanism of peptide-based hydrogels is elucidated. • The challenges and prospects of self-assembling peptide-based hydrogels are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The γ-glutamyl peptides refer to a series of bioactive peptides containing γ-glutamyl residues. The unique γ-glutamyl linkage endows γ-glutamyl peptides with higher in vivo stability and longer half-life, which contributes to their potent physiological functions. Recently, γ-glutamyl peptides have become the focus of researchers due to the unique Kokumi taste and various potential bioactivities mediated through activation of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). However, review articles on the emerging bioactivities and potential mechanisms responsible for intestinal absorption of γ-glutamyl peptides are very scanty. This article aimed to discuss the significance and role of γ-glutamyl peptides in human health. The present review systematically summarizes the available scientific information on the preparation, CaSR, bioactivity and bioavailability of food-derived γ-glutamyl peptides. Furthermore, the current scientific challenges and future research directions are also discussed. γ-Glutamyl peptides have been reported to exhibit diverse bioactivities, including anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic and appetite-suppressing effects as well as the ameliorating effect on colon health, which are attributed to CaSR activation. Moreover, due to the high resistance towards gastrointestinal digestion, γ-glutamyl peptides can play a key role in the gastrointestinal tract and also be transported across the intestinal epithelium mainly via peptide transporter 1 (PepT1) or paracellular routes to exhibit various in vivo activities. In addition, further and intensive investigations are urgently required to address the current challenges pertaining to the effective preparation, novel physiological functions and exact absorption mechanisms of γ-glutamyl peptides. This review contributes to a better understanding of γ-glutamyl peptides in terms of their cellular receptor, bioactivity and bioavailability. [Display omitted] • The main preparation approaches of γ-glutamyl peptides were described. • The emerging bioactivities of γ-glutamyl peptides were reviewed. • Activation of CaSR by γ-glutamyl peptides and its mechanism was presented. • The in vivo transport mechanisms of γ-glutamyl peptides were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-term high sodium diet consumption has been largely implicated in the pathogenesis of several cardiovascular disease conditions. Non-sodium salts such as potassium chloride and calcium chloride are thus often used in the food industry to partially replace sodium chloride. But excessive use of these alternatives can negatively impact the sensory quality of foods. Therefore, the research, development and application of salty peptides and salt taste-enhancing peptides are promising as a potential salt reduction strategy. This work firstly recapped the necessity of global salt reduction, followed by salt taste receptors and salt taste transduction mechanism. Subsequently, the recent progress on salty peptides and salt taste-enhancing peptides from different protein sources was reviewed. Furthermore, the main approaches used to evaluate salty peptides and salt taste-enhancing peptides were introduced. In addition, application prospects and the current challenges were discussed. The salty peptides and salt taste-enhancing peptides derived from food proteins are promising to be employed as an effective salt reduction strategy. This review can provide a theoretical reference for the food industry to reduce salt consumption by the use of salty peptides and salt taste-enhancing peptides. [Display omitted] • Salt taste-enhancing peptides can interact with human taste receptors. • Maillard reacted peptides and γ-glutamyl peptides exhibit salt taste-enhancing effects. • Salt taste-enhancing peptides can significantly enhance saltiness perception. • Salt taste-enhancing peptides have a great potential for salt reduction in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Maillard reaction of food-derived peptides is a potential route to generate meat flavor. • The preparation and analysis technology of MRPs can provide a reference for future application. • Meat flavor can be generated through Maillard reaction of flavor precursor compounds. • Meat flavoring can be directly prepared by Maillard reaction of food-derived peptides. Plant-based meat analogues (PBMA) are promising foods to address the global imbalance between the supply and demand for meat products caused by the increasing environmental pressures and growing human population. Given that the flavor of PBMA plays a crucial role in consumer acceptance, imparting meat-like flavor is of great significance. As a natural approach to generate meat-like flavor, the Maillard reaction involving food-derived peptides could contribute to the required flavor compounds, which has promising applications in PBMA formulations. In this review, the precursors of meat-like flavor are summarized followed by a discussion of the reactions and mechanisms responsible for generation of the flavor compounds. The preparation and analysis techniques for food-derived Maillard reacted peptides (MRPs) as well as their taste and aroma properties are discussed. In addition, the MRPs as meat flavor precursors and their potential application in the formulation of PBMA are also discussed. The present review provides a fundamental scientific information useful for the production and application of MRPs as meat flavor precursors in PBMA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant-based meat analogues (PBMA) are promising to address the issue of imbalance between global meat supply and demand. PBMA can contribute to an environmentally friendly and sustainable food production. As one of the main raw materials in PBMA, the naturally occurring beany flavor in soybean restricts their further development and consumer acceptance. To enhance the application of soybean as an ingredient in PBMA as well as improve consumer acceptability, the beany flavor should be effectively eliminated. In the present review, the main beany flavor compounds, their formation mechanism, the interaction between soybean protein and off-flavor compounds, the detection methods, and the removal methods were systematically reviewed. Notably, the main removal approaches for beany flavor of soybean can be divided into three categories, namely biotechnological, physical and chemical methods. The different removal methods of beany flavor in soybean protein were compared and discussed. Application of biotechnological methods to eliminate beany flavor in soybean is challenging. Although enzymatic method is safe and clean, its catalytic efficiency is relatively low. Chemical modification methods possess food safety threats. By contrast, physical processing is relatively effective in removing beany flavor, while heating may exert a negative impact on the functional properties of soybean protein. Collectively, enzymatic modification combined with novel non-thermal processing as well as the optimized texturization process of soybean protein is of great significance to elimination of beany flavor in PBMA. [Display omitted] • Over 20 low-threshold volatile compounds account for beany flavor, and their formation mechanisms were described. • The detection methods of beany flavor compounds in soybean were reviewed. • The main removal methods for beany flavor include biotechnological, physical, and chemical methods. • The non-thermal processing technology and enzymatic modification are promising to removal of beany flavor. • This review provides a theoretical reference for removal of beany flavor in plant-based meat analogues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spicy hot pot (SHP) is a regional Chinese food and popular global cuisine. The various spices in the SHP base serve as the main source of unique flavor in SHP. However, there is currently a dearth of molecular understanding of the typical flavor characteristics (pungent, numbing, umami, and fragrant) in SHP base, which restricts the elucidation of flavor formation mechanism in SHP. The present review provides a comprehensive analysis of SHP base based on a multidisciplinary intersection. This review focuses on the components responsible for pungent, numbing, umami, and fragrant characteristics in the SHP base. Furthermore, the main flavor compounds and their formation mechanisms are systematically reviewed. In addition, multisensory interactions and evaluation of flavor attributes are summarized and discussed. Capsaicinoids are considered the primary pungent compounds, and their perception is related to TRPV1 receptor. Sanshool and its derivatives are the primary basis of numbing sensation, while the sensation of taste-active compounds is related to TRPA1/TRPV1 and KCNK3/KCNK9/KCNK18 receptors. Amino acids, nucleotides, and umami/umami-enhancing peptides are significant sources of umami taste in SHP base. T1R1/T1R3 and mGlu4 are suggested to be associated with umami perception. The aroma compounds of SHP base are mainly generated by lipids/fatty acids and spices in SHP base. Sensory evaluation, electronic noses and tongues, and taste biosensors contribute to further understanding the flavor perception in SHP base. Overall, the present review can provide a theoretical reference for an understanding of flavor mystery of the SHP base. [Display omitted] • Spicy hot pot (SHP) base is characterized by delicious taste and unique flavor. • The flavor of SHP is a collection of sensations, including pungent, numbing, umami, and fragrant. • The main flavor compounds responsible for characteristic flavor in SHP bases are summarized. • The flavor formation mechanisms and evaluation methodology are systematically reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Meat flavoring was prepared by Maillard reaction of wheat gluten protein hydrolysates-xylose. • The UV absorption and fluorescence intensities of MRPs at 120 °C increased significantly. • MRPs with the high umami and low bitter taste were obtained at 120 °C. • Furans and furanthiols were the main volatile compounds of MRPs at 120 °C. Wheat gluten protein hydrolysates were prepared by Flavourzyme, followed by xylose-induced Maillard reaction at different temperatures (80 °C, 100 °C and 120 °C). The MRPs were subjected to analysis of physicochemical characteristics, taste profile and volatile compounds. The results demonstrated that UV absorption and fluorescence intensity of MRPs significantly increased at 120 °C, suggesting formation of a large amount of Maillard reaction intermediates. Thermal degradation and cross-linking simultaneously occurred during Maillard reaction, while thermal degradation of MRPs played a more predominant role at 120 °C. MRPs exhibited high umami and low bitter taste at 120 °C, accompanied by the high content of umami amino acids and low content of bitter amino acids. Furans and furanthiols with pronounced meaty flavor served as the main volatile compounds in MRPs at 120 °C. Overall, high temperature-induced Maillard reaction of wheat gluten protein hydrolysates and xylose is a promising strategy for the generation of potential plant-based meat flavoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The recent research progress on extraction of food proteins by DES is reviewed. • DES can exhibit high extraction efficiency in the extraction of food proteins. • The structure and activity of extracted proteins can completely be retained by DES-based method. • DES with low viscosity, high selectivity and back-extraction efficiency is needed. The constantly improved quality of life leads to increasing demand for high-quality food proteins. Thus, the high-efficiency extraction methods of food proteins are highly needed. However, the traditional alkali-solution and acid-isolation method employs a large amount of corrosive acid/alkaline solution, which not only pollutes the environment, but also causes denaturation of proteins. Therefore, developing a novel green extraction method is of great significance. Deep eutectic solvents (DES), characterized by good biodegradability, sustainability and low toxicity, have become a green solvent in the past years. Extraction of food proteins by DES can overcome the shortcomings of corrosive solvents (e.g. NaOH, HCl and H 2 SO 4) used in traditional methods, making it a promising novel green extraction method. In this work, the information on DES was firstly recapped. Furthermore, the latest research progress on the extraction of food proteins by DES was emphatically reviewed. In addition, the challenges and future perspectives for DES-assisted extraction were discussed. Overall, the DES-based methods exhibit high extraction efficiency in extracting animal and plant proteins, amino acids, and enzymes, while the extracted proteins were non-denatured. However, DES-based protein extraction method still faces some challenges, such as high viscosity, poor extraction selectivity and inefficient back-extraction method. The present work can provide a theoretical reference for applying DES in the green extraction of food proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Collagen peptides from grass carp were glycated by glucosamine to prepare Maillard reacted peptides. • The degree of Maillard reaction of collagen peptides was relatively low. • Thermal degradation and crosslinking simultaneously occurred. • Glycation of collagen peptides by glucosamine contributed to the salt-taste enhancing property. Reducing salt intake, as one of the most cost-effective approaches, is congruent with improved population health. Grass carp skin collagen was subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis and ultrafiltration, followed by glucosamine-induced Maillard reaction to prepare Maillard-reacted peptides. Their color, free amino acid and peptide size distribution were analyzed, while UV and fluorescence spectroscopy were utilized to characterize the progress of Maillard reaction. The salt taste-enhancing effect of Maillard-reacted peptides was investigated via sensory analysis and electronic tongue. LC–MS/MS was employed to analyze the glycation sites of Maillard-reacted peptides. The results indicated that the degree of Maillard reaction was relatively low, and thermal degradation and crosslinking simultaneously occurred. Maillard-reacted peptides exhibited a significant salt taste-enhancing effect, which may be attributed to the glucosamine-induced glycation confirmed by LC–MS/MS analysis. The current study provides a theoretical basis for preparation of salt taste-enhancing peptides and their future application to reduce salt content of formulated foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]