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Iberian pig production has its own quality regulation, which defines different handling and feeding systems for this breed. These differences influence production costs, market price and environmental impact. The most extensive system of fattening Iberian pigs is based on foraging acorns in a silvopastoral system named dehesa , and consumers usually associate the Iberian pork with this system, although nowadays more intensive systems are dominant due to their productivity and management simplicity. The aim of this study is to assess the Carbon Footprint (CF) of the different Iberian pig production systems using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. This study is based on data collected from 19 Iberian pig farms producing nursery growers (≤25 kg, 2 farms), pre-finished pigs (100–110 kg, 3 farms) and 3 types of finished pigs (150–175 kg), including free-range fattened pigs (17 farms), outdoor intensively fattened pigs (2 farms) and indoor intensively fattened pigs (2 farms). The CF was calculated with a "cradle to farm gate" approach using the kg of live weight (kg LW) as functional unit, and including C sequestration in soils and biomass, which was calculated by field monitoring in a selection of measuring points. The average CFs of the final products were 9.2 ± 2.5 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for nursery growers, 5.6 ± 2.42 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for pre-finished pigs, −5.6 ± 6.5 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for free-range fattened pigs, 3.1 ± 1.5 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for outdoor intensively fattened pigs and 7.7 ± 0.3 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for intensively fattened pigs. The main C sinks of the dehesa system (trees and soil) sequestered an average of 3.18 t CO 2 eq ha−1 year−1. This C sequestration, averaging −10.2 ± 6.7 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 in free-range pig production, offsets 223% of the GHG emissions in those systems, which resulted in a negative CF (net CO 2 sequestration). There was a direct relationship between CF and pig stocking rate, leading to strongly negative CF values on those farms with the lowest pig stocking rates. • C sequestration offsets life cycle GHG emissions in free-range pig production. • A direct relation between extensification and reduced C footprint is identified. • The CF contribution of the growing phase is the highest one for all pig products. • Feed inputs are the first source of GHG emissions for all pig products. • Free-range grazing for finishing in an agroforestry system highly reduces pig CF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contribution of cattle production to climate change is increasingly recognized, and there is a need to identify those systems minimizing emissions and maximizing carbon (C) sinks. In the Southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, cattle are produced on dehesa agroforestry systems, where cows and calves graze together until weaning, and calf fattening is based on external feed. The aim of this study was to assess the Carbon footprint (CF) of beef of this extensive production system using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. The study collects data from 15 extensive cattle farms, 6 organically (ORG) and 9 conventionally (CONV) managed; 4 farms had their own fattening facilities while most of the farms sold calves to 2 specialised fattening farms also studied. CF calculation includes field monitoring of C sequestration on soils and woody biomass in a selection of well-known points with previous estimations. The limit of the system was "cradle to gate", and the functional unit was 1 kg LW of calf at slaughtering age. The main C sinks of the dehesa system sequestered an average of 3.3 t CO 2 eq ha−1 year−1. The average CF of the final product was 6.43 ± 21.46 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1, with numerically lower but not statistically different average CF in ORG than in CONV systems. The inclusion of C sequestration, that averaged −13.52 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1, offset 95% and 54% on ORG and CONV farms, respectively. In some cases, C sequestration compensated all GHG emissions and resulted in negative CF. There was a direct negative relationship between CF and stocking rate, leading to negative CF values in those farms with lowest stocking rates. [Display omitted] • Agroforestry systems mitigate GHG emissions of cattle. • C sequestration can offset life cycle GHG emissions in extensive cattle farms. • A direct relation between extensification and reduced C footprint is identified. • There are lower feed-related emissions in organically managed farms. • Feed inputs are the second source of GHG emissions for extensive cattle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We estimated greenhouse gas emissions and potential C sinks in the Mediterranean. • The GHG budget from crop production was half of that from livestock production. • Research in the area is not focused on emission hotspots. • Research should be redirected to less-studied areas, products, and processes. • Life-cycle assessment-based C footprints should be based on climate-specific data. Designing effective mitigation policies for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture requires understanding the mechanisms by which management practices affect emissions in different agroclimatic conditions. Agricultural GHG emissions and carbon sequestration potentials have been extensively studied in the Mediterranean biome, which is a biodiversity hot spot that is highly vulnerable to environmental changes. However, the absolute magnitude of GHG emissions and the extent to which research efforts match these emissions in each production system, are unknown. Here, we estimated GHG emissions and potential carbon sinks associated with crop and livestock production systems in the Mediterranean biome, covering 31 countries and assessing approximately 10,000 emission items. The results were then combined with a bibliometric assessment of 797 research publications to compare emissions estimates obtained with research efforts for each of the studied items. Although the magnitude of GHG emissions from crop production and the associated carbon sequestration potential (261 Tg CO 2 eq yr−1) were nearly half of those from livestock production (367 Tg CO 2 eq yr−1), mitigation research efforts were largely focused on the former. As a result, the relative research intensity, which relates the number of publications to the magnitude of emissions, is nearly one order of magnitude higher for crop production than for livestock production (2.6 and 0.4 papers Tg CO 2 eq−1, respectively). Moreover, this mismatch is even higher when crop and livestock types are studied separately, which indicates major research gaps associated with grassland and many strategic crop types, such as fruit tree orchards, fiber crops, roots and tubers. Most life cycle assessment studies do not consider carbon sequestration, although this single process has the highest magnitude in terms of annual CO 2 eq. In addition, these studies employ Tier 1 IPCC factors, which are not suited for use in Mediterranean environments. Our analytical results show that a strategic plan is required to extend on-site field GHG measurements to the Mediterranean biome. Such a plan needs to be cocreated among stakeholders and should be based on refocusing research efforts to GHG balance components that have been afforded less attention. In addition, the outcomes of Mediterranean field studies should be integrated into life cycle assessment-based carbon footprint analyses in order to avoid misleading conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mediterranean agriculture has coevolved with harsh environments and changing climate conditions over millennia, generating an extremely rich heritage of traditional knowledge; however, it is particularly threatened by climate change, including a higher than average warming and more frequent extreme climate events. The vulnerability is enhanced by the other components of global change affecting the Mediterranean basin, including biodiversity loss, freshwater overuse, disrupted nutrient cycles, soil degradation and altered fire regimes, in a context of high population density, water scarcity, high dependence on biomass and energy imports, and the prevalence of highly specialized, low diversity agroecosystems. Due to the need to create resilience to these interconnected threats, systemic adaptation measures are urgently needed. This review shows that this systemic approach can be provided by agroecology, which offers a holistic framework enabling the recovery and assessment of traditional knowledge and the cocreation of new local knowledge for enhancing resilience. It also highlights the role of the reconnection of food production and consumption, associated with the recovery of the locally-adapted, largely plant-based Mediterranean diet. Three types of complementary adaptation strategies for crop production are identified: (i) Biodiversity management to spread out risks and reduce pest damage; (ii) Increasing soil organic matter, e.g. with cover crops or crop varieties with higher residue and root production; (iii) Reducing fossil fuel dependence by avoiding synthetic chemicals, increasing efficiency and using renewable energy. Livestock adaptation strategies identified include: (i) management of extensive herds, including practices such as transhumance; (ii) diversification, use of local breeds and change of species; (iii) pasture and forage management, focusing on adjusting stocking rates to prevent abandonment and intensification, agroforestry, and fire management through grazing. Public policies must be set to tailor these strategies to each specific local situation with the involvement of all stakeholders and to establish or reinforce networks allowing knowledge exchange. • High vulnerability to climate change, global change and resource depletion • Agro-food system level actions are needed to address the challenges • Vast traditional ecological knowledge heritage could be used for adaptation • Cropping systems adaptation by diversification, SOM management and renewable energy • Livestock adaptation by agroforestry and fire management through grazing [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]