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Highlights • First perceptual study to take into account a mixed language and its source languages. • Vowels with highly overlapping 'intermixed' acoustic spaces can still be aurally contrastive. • Media Lengua listeners identify differences in mid- and high-vowel production. • Young Quichua listeners identify differences in mid- and high-vowels while older listeners do not. • Theoretical implications raised for models of L2/non-native speech perception. Abstract This study explores mid and high vowel perception in and across Ecuadorian Spanish, Quichua, and Media Lengua (a mixed language containing Quichua systemic elements and Spanish lexicon). Quichua and Media Lengua were originally considered three vowel systems comprised of /i, u, a/. However, recent production results reveal that mid vowels /e, o/ may have entered these languages through Spanish lexical borrowings. The aim of the present study is to test listener perception with minimal pairs containing different mid and high vowels to determine how listeners identify them. A two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) identification task experiment with paired stimuli, gradually modified along 10-step continua, revealed that listeners of all three languages demonstrate a relatively high degree of consistent response patterns with the exception of older Quichua listeners. The results of this study coupled with the 'intermixed' acoustic spaces in which the vowels are produced also call into question the predictions that might be made in theoretical models of L2/non-native speech perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses Quechua instruction to emergent bilinguals in urban schools, as part of the implementation of a language policy promoting Quechua in the Peruvian Andes. In the light of two other teachers who work in similar scenarios and the language ideologies of Quechua experts leading the language policy, this article analyzes a focal teacher who constructs alternative ideologies and subjectivities that contribute to transform the power relationships typically enacted in these racially segregated urban schools. Through translanguaging strategies for involving her diverse audience ( Creese & Blackledge, 2010; García, 2009 ) and a critical language awareness approach to make the invisible visible and the inaudible audible ( Bucholtz & Hall, 2004 ), this teacher constructs a community of legitimate Quechua speakers, which subverts the dominant representation of the bilingual speaker as the “perfectly” coordinated bilingual and the invisibilization of emergent bilinguals in the official language policy. Like other studies that conceptualize teachers as policy makers ( Menken & García, 2010 ), the present study shows that teachers negotiate with official language policies and can ultimately contest them in practice. However, in the case under study, this constitutes a process where the teacher initially reproduces ambiguous and contradictory discourses before reaching more critical positionings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural classes are typically defined by some shared phonetic property, though the segments within such a class may differ substantially along other dimensions. This paper explores two such classes in Quechua: the class of [spread glottis] segments, aspirates and [h], and the class of [constricted glottis] segments, ejectives and [ʔ]. While aspirates and ejectives pattern with their glottal counterparts in the cooccurrence phonotactics of the language, nonce word tasks only find weak evidence of these natural classes. Instead, there is evidence for strong phonotactic restrictions on aspirates and ejectives to the exclusion of their glottal counterparts. It is proposed that the preference for classes of laryngeally marked stops is phonetically based, deriving from the salience of the phonetic properties unique to stops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper, declarative intonation contours from Peruvian Spanish speakers are compared between pragmatic conditions in order to observe potential differences in the prosodic realization of contrastive focus. To do so, an acoustic feature of intonation, the fundamental frequency (F0), is examined. Since focus in Quechua is realized through the use of evidential markers, it is hypothesized that Cuzco Spanish speakers may behave differently than Lima speakers in relatively less contact with Quechua. Two intonation features have been examined with relation to contrastive focus on the subject: peak alignment and peak height. While Lima speakers demonstrate earlier and higher peaks on the subject, similar to previous reports for Madrid and Peninsular Spanish, some Cuzco speakers use fewer prosodic cues, while others rely on post-focal deaccenting alone. Also, Cuzco speakers appear to behave similarly according to whether or not they are bilingual in Spanish and Quechua. This research demonstrates how focus in realized differently in two regional varieties of Peruvian Spanish and adds to our knowledge of how language contact may contribute to the development of alternate intonation patterns in Spanish. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Convergence in case mapping strategies in the oral speech of Quechua–Spanish bilinguals is examined. In principle, Quechua case suffixes could be analyzed as postpositions or as case markers. The data show that in code mixing utterances, Spanish prepositions and Quechua case suffixes co-occur and that mapping strategies converge. The fact that, in Quechua–Spanish code switching, Spanish prepositions are combined with Quechua case suffixes is taken as evidence that the latter are case markers, not postpositions. Further support for this view is the fact that no obvious differences were found in the data between non-oblique and oblique case markers. This distribution is consistent with an analysis of Quechua case suffixes as the spell out of an agree relationship between a null prepositional head and a DP. Cases of case suffix dropping in differential object marking expressions are analyzed as a possible source of instability in case marking in code mixing utterances. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper I discuss cases where there has been systematic borrowing of affixes: Spanish elements in different Quechua languages. I will try to study, in this specific case, the different processes through which suffixes have entered the language. I argue that there are four dimensions, four paths through which a Spanish suffix can be incorporated into Quechua: second language (L2)-oriented processes, universally oriented processes, first language (L1)-oriented processes, and processes in which properties of both L1 and L2 play a role. Thus the process of borrowing morphology is far from uniform. Rather, it reflects the complexity of all language contact processes, in which the four dimensions listed play a role. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper we offer a panoramic overview of the development of Andean Spanish and Andean Linguistics, from a theoretical point of view of language contact and universal grammar. We discuss how the notion of Andean Spanish came into existence, the issues under debate, and the consequences of different theoretical positions. We also introduce the contents of the papers included in this special issue, and highlight their key points, framing them in the context of the research on universal grammar. The following five areas are covered: (1) the convergence of Quechua and Aymara, (2) the impact of bilingualism on intonation, (3) the sharing of suffixes in contact situations, (4) the modification of the present perfect tense in Spanish in contact with Quechua, and (5) the properties of the Quechua case system from the point of view of contact varieties. Finally, we provide some remarks on bilingual education, and some suggestions for further directions for future research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the Andes, a phonological transference known as motoseo has acquired ideological weight. People think that bilingual speakers of Quechua and Spanish ‘confuse’ the vowels when speaking Spanish and that they are inferior to the ones who do not. In this article, I analyze the ideological agenda of the racialized verbal hygiene practice based on this phenomenon in two universities of the Peruvian Quechua-speaking context. I look at how students have internalized the ideology associated with the phenomenon and constantly discipline themselves to control it while speaking. In addition, I discuss how professors (most of whom are also speakers of Quechua) use this trait to otherize rural students and construct them as “they” as opposed to “us”. This ideology is so widespread in the area that it works to reproduce a profoundly unequal social order that is not questioned by most university professors nor by the students who are victims of it. In turn, it leads to low academic performance and a university experience that is often traumatic for students coming from rural areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In Quechua most embedded clauses are nominalized. In addition, dialects like Cuzco and Junin-Huanca have genitive subjects in both complement and relative clauses. Significantly, objects in these clauses cannot be marked with accusative case. Based on the approach to nominalizations suggested in , we derive the case marking pattern in nominalized clauses from the level at which nominalization applies in the derivation. We also analyze the genitive subjects in Quechua as licensed by C (as in Turkish) rather than by D (as suggested in recent work by Miyagawa for Japanese). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Incas were Quechua-speaking people who settled down near Cuzco (Peru). They had an empire ranging from Ecuador to Chile, when Spanish conquerors seized their kingdom around 1532 AD. Nowadays, Quechua-speaking people inhabits Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina; however, Quechua language was imposed by both Incas and Spaniards to many non-Quechua speaking communities. We have taken a sample of Quechuan Bolivian blood donors from La Paz (Titicaca Lake region) where Inca-Quechuas themselves believed that came from. This group was compared with 6892 individuals from 68 different world populations regarding HLA/DNA allele frequencies distribution. Genetic distances, dendrograms and correspondence analyses were carried out in order to establish relationships among populations. The main conclusions are: (1) DRB1 and -DQB1 haplotypes shared with Asians are found in Quechuas and are not observed in other (Mesoamerican) Amerindians. (2) Aymara-speaking people from the same Titicaca Lake (La Paz) area shows close genetic distances with Quechuas in one dimension results (genetic distances); however, their HLA gene frequency distribution differs according to Neighbor–Joining (NJ) trees and correspondence analysis (multidimensional and more reliable analyses). Also, the common high frequency Asian and Athabascan HLA-DRB1*0901 allele is found in Quechuas in a significant frequency. Quechuas are clearly included within the Amerindian group. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]