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Astrocyte dysfunction emerges early in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and may contribute to its pathology and progression. Recently, the voltage gated potassium channel K V 3.4 subunit, which underlies the fast-inactivating K + currents, has been recognized to be relevant for AD pathogenesis and is emerging as a new target candidate for AD. In the present study, we investigated both in in vitro and in vivo models of AD the expression and functional activity of K V 3.4 potassium channel subunits in astrocytes. In primary astrocytes our biochemical, immunohistochemical, and electrophysiological studies demonstrated a time-dependent upregulation of K V 3.4 expression and functional activity after exposure to amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers. Consistently, astrocytic K V 3.4 expression was upregulated in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum of 6-month-old Tg2576 mice. Further, confocal triple labeling studies revealed that in 6-month-old Tg2576 mice, K V 3.4 was intensely coexpressed with Aβ in nonplaque associated astrocytes. Interestingly, in the cortical and hippocampal regions of 12-month-old Tg2576 mice, plaque-associated astrocytes much more intensely expressed K V 3.4 subunits, but not Aβ. More important, we evidenced that the selective knockdown of K V 3.4 expression significantly downregulated both glial fibrillary acidic protein levels and Aβ trimers in the brain of 6-month-old Tg2576 mice. Collectively, our results demonstrate that the expression and function of K V 3.4 channel subunits are precociously upregulated in cultured astrocytes exposed to Aβ oligomers and in reactive astrocytes of AD Tg2576 mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Post-ischemic astrocyte-microglia crosstalk elicits the co-expression of Ascl1 and NCX1 in striatal anoxic astrocytes. • The reoxygenation of anoxic astrocytes with the conditioned medium derived from IL-4 stimulated microglia strongly promotes the astrocytic co-expression of Ascl1 and NCX1. • Ascl1 expression in striatal anoxic astrocytes depends on NCX1 since its silencing prevents Ascl1 expression both in in vitro and in post-ischemic ex vivo experimental conditions. The intricate glia interaction occurring after stroke strongly depend on the maintenance of intraglial ionic homeostasis. Among the several ionic channels and transporters, the plasmamembrane Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) represents a key player in maintaining astroglial Na+ and Ca2+ homeostasis. Here, using a combined in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo experimental strategy we evaluated whether microglia responding to ischemic injury may influence the morphological and the transcriptional plasticity of post-ischemic astrocytes. Astrocyte plasticity was monitored by the expression of the transcription factor Acheate-scute like 1 (Ascl1), which plays a central role in the commitment of astrocytes towards the neuronal lineage. Furthermore, we explored the implication of NCX1 expression and activity in mediating Ascl1-dependent post-ischemic astrocyte remodeling. We demonstrated that: (a) in astrocytes co-cultured with microglia the exposure to oxygen and glucose deprivation followed by 7 days of reoxygenation induced a prevalence of bipolar astrocytes overexpressing Ascl1 and NCX1, whereas this did not occur in monocultured astrocytes; (b) the reoxygenation of anoxic astrocytes with the conditioned medium derived from IL-4 stimulated microglia strongly elicited the astrocytic co-expression of Ascl1 and NCX1; (c) Ascl1 expression in anoxic astrocytes was dependenton NCX1 since its silencing prevented Ascl1 expression both in in vitro and in post-ischemic ex vivo experimental conditions. Collectively, the results of our study support the idea that, after brain ischemia, astrocyte-microglia crosstalk can influence astrocytic morphology and its Ascl1 expression. This phenomenon is strictly dependent on ischemia-induced increase of NCX1 which in turn induces Ascl1 overexpression possibly through astrocytic Ca2+ elevation. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The plasma membrane Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) is a high-capacity ionic transporter that exchanges 3Na+ ions for 1Ca2+ ion. The first 20 amino acids of the f-loop, named exchanger inhibitory peptide (XIPNCX1), represent an autoinhibitory region involved in the Na+-dependent inactivation of the exchanger. Previous research has shown that an exogenous peptide having the same amino acid sequence as the XIPNCX1 region exerts an inhibitory effect on NCX activity. In this study, we identified another regulatory peptide, named P1, which corresponds to the 562-688aa region of the exchanger. Patch-clamp analysis revealed that P1 increased the activity of the exchanger, whereas the XIP inhibited it. Furthermore, P1 colocalized with NCX1 thus suggesting a direct binding interaction. In addition, site-directed mutagenesis experiments revealed that the binding and the stimulatory effect of P1 requires a functional XIPNCX1 domain on NCX1 thereby suggesting that P1 increases the exchanger activity by counteracting the action of this autoinhibitory sequence. Taken together, these results open a new strategy for developing peptidomimetic compounds that, by mimicking the functional pharmacophore of P1, might increase NCX1 activity and thus exert a therapeutic action in those diseases in which an increase in NCX1 activity might be helpful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Na+/Ca2+ exchanger 1 (NCX1) activity is modulated by STIM1 in cortical neurons • NCX1 is recruited by STIM1 to take part in neuronal SOCE • TRPC6 is recruited by STIM1 in primary cortical neurons • Thapsigargin-mediated activation of TRPC6 produces a Na+ gradient useful for NCX1 reverse mode activation Excessive calcium (Ca2+) release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) represents an important hallmark of several neurodegenerative diseases. ER is recharged from Ca2+ through the so-called Store-Operated Calcium Entry (SOCE) thus providing Ca2+ signals to regulate critical cell functions. Single transmembrane-spanning domain protein stromal interacting molecule 1 (STIM1), mainly residing in the ER, and plasmalemmal channel Orai1 represent the SOCE key components at neuronal level. However, many other proteins participate to ER Ca2+ refilling including the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger isoform 1 (NCX1), whose regulation by ER remains unknown. In this study, we tested the possibility that neuronal NCX1 may take part to SOCE through the interaction with STIM1. In rat primary cortical neurons and in nerve growth factor (NGF)-differentiated PC12 cells NCX1 knocking down by siRNA strategy significantly prevented SOCE as well as SOCE pharmacological inhibition by SKF-96365 and 2-APB. A significant reduction of SOCE was recorded also in synaptosomes from ncx1−/− mice brain compared with ncx1+/+ mice. Double labeling confocal experiments showed a large co-localization between NCX1 and STIM1 in rat primary cortical neurons. Accordingly, NCX1 and STIM1 co-immunoprecipitated and functionally interacted each other during ischemic preconditioning, a phenomenon inducing ischemic tolerance. However, STIM1 knocking down reduced NCX1 activity recorded by either patch-clamp electrophysiology or Fura-2 single-cell microfluorimetry. Furthermore, canonical transient receptor potential channel 6 (TRPC6) was identified as the mechanism mediating local increase of sodium (Na+) useful to drive NCX1 reverse mode and, therefore, NCX1-mediated Ca2+ refilling. In fact, TRPC6 not only interacted with STIM1, as shown by the co-localization and co-immunoprecipitation with the ER Ca2+ sensor, but it also mediated 1,3-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, 4,4′-[1,4,10-trioxa-7,13-diazacyclopentadecane-7,13-diylbis(5-methoxy-6,12-benzofurandiyl)]bis-, tetrakis[(acetyloxy)methyl] ester (SBFI)-monitored Na+ increase elicited by thapsigargin in primary cortical neurons. Accordingly, efficient TRPC6 knockdown prevented thapsigargin-induced intracellular Na+ elevation and SOCE. Collectively, we identify NCX1 as a new partner of STIM1 in mediating SOCE, whose activation in the reverse mode may be facilitated by the local increase of Na+ concentration due to the interaction between STIM1 and TRPC6 in primary cortical neurons. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An ever increasing number of reports shows the involvement of free radicals in the functional and structural changes occurring in the brain as a part of the “normal” aging process. Given that plasma membrane and intracellular ion channels play a critical role in maintaining intracellular ion homeostasis, which is crucial for neuronal cell survival, in the present review we have attempted to elaborate on the idea that functional changes in ion channel activity induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) might occur during the aging process. To this aim, we have reviewed the available literature and the data obtained in our laboratory on the ability of ROS and RNS to modify the activity of several plasma membrane and intracellular ion channels and transporters, in an attempt to correlate such changes with those occurring with the aging process. Particular emphasis is given to voltage-gated Na+, Ca2+, and K+ channels, although second messenger-activated channels like Ca2+- and ATP-dependent K+ channels, and intracellular channels controlling intracellular Ca2+ storage and release will also be discussed.On the basis of the available data it is not yet possible to establish a strict correlation between the changes in neuronal electrophysiological properties induced by oxidative modification at the level of ion channels and the neurodegenerative process accompanying brain aging. However, an increasing amount of information suggests that the modulatory effects exerted by ROS and RNS on ion channel proteins might have a relevant role for neuronal cell survival or death. Obviously, more work is needed to establish the possible involvement of ion channels and of their modulation by ROS and RNS as important mechanisms for the aging process. Only when a more complete molecular picture of the aging process will be available, it will be possible to test the fascinating hypothesis that aging might be pharmacologically delayed by modulating ROS and RNS action on ion channels or the biochemical pathways involved in their modulation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Schematic representation of the role played by NCX at synaptic and neuronal level after Aβ exposure. • Sodium/calcium exchangers (NCXs) play a crucial role in counteracting ionic dyshomeostasis in Alzheimer's disease. • NCX activity increases in surviving neurons of AD brain areas affected by neurodegeneration. • The upregulation of neuronal NCX3 proteolytic fragment promotes ER Ca2+ refilling and delays ER stress during Aβ insult. • NCX3 acts in a neuroprotective manner during AD pathophysiology. As a pivotal player in regulating sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis and signalling in excitable cells, the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) is involved in many neurodegenerative disorders in which an imbalance of intracellular Ca2+ and/or Na+ concentrations occurs, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although NCX has been mainly implicated in neuroprotective mechanisms counteracting Ca2+ dysregulation, several studies highlighted its role in the neuronal responses to intracellular Na+ elevation occurring in several pathophysiological conditions. Since the alteration of Na+ and Ca2+ homeostasis significantly contributes to synaptic dysfunction and neuronal loss in AD, it is of crucial importance to analyze the contribution of NCX isoforms in the homeostatic responses at neuronal and synaptic levels. Some studies found that an increase of NCX activity in brains of AD patients was correlated with neuronal survival, while other research groups found that protein levels of two NCX subtypes, NCX2 and NCX3, were modulated in parietal cortex of late stage AD brains. In particular, NCX2 positive synaptic terminals were increased in AD cohort while the number of NCX3 positive terminals were reduced. In addition, NCX1, NCX2 and NCX3 isoforms were up-regulated in those synaptic terminals accumulating amyloid-beta (Aβ), the neurotoxic peptide responsible for AD neurodegeneration. More recently, the hyperfunction of a specific NCX subtype, NCX3, has been shown to delay endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptotic neuronal death in hippocampal neurons exposed to Aβ insult. Despite some issues about the functional role of NCX in synaptic failure and neuronal loss require further studies, these findings highlight the putative neuroprotective role of NCX in AD and open new strategies to develop new druggable targets for AD therapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schematic representation of the most important channels, receptors, pumps and exchangers localized on plasma membrane, ER, mitochondria and nucleus that are responsible for the maintenance of intracellular Ca2+ ions in a physiological range of concentration. • Nuclear calcium (Ca2+) concentration is controlled independently from cytosolic events by a local machinery. • Nuclear Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (nuNCX) allows local Ca2+ flowing from nucleoplasm into nuclear envelope. • nuNCX shares some relevant regulatory features with the plasma membrane form of the exchanger. • nuNCX controls the activity of NFAT, CREB and DREAM through the modulation of nuclear Ca2+ level. • nuNCX controls neuronal differentiation through PTEN/Akt pathway and other cellular functions. Numerous lines of evidence indicate that nuclear calcium concentration ([Ca2+] n) may be controlled independently from cytosolic events by a local machinery. In particular, the perinuclear space between the inner nuclear membrane (INM) and the outer nuclear membrane (ONM) of the nuclear envelope (NE) likely serves as an intracellular store for Ca2+ ions. Since ONM is contiguous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the perinuclear space is adjacent to the lumen of ER thus allowing a direct exchange of ions and factors between the two organelles. Moreover, INM and ONM are fused at the nuclear pore complex (NPC), which provides the only direct passageway between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. However, due to the presence of ion channels, exchangers and transporters, it has been generally accepted that nuclear ion fluxes may occur across ONM and INM. Within the INM, the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) isoform 1 seems to play an important role in handling Ca2+ through the different nuclear compartments. Particularly, nuclear NCX preferentially allows local Ca2+ flowing from nucleoplasm into NE lumen thanks to the Na+ gradient created by the juxtaposed Na+/K+-ATPase. Such transfer reduces abnormal elevation of [Ca2+] n within the nucleoplasm thus modulating specific transductional pathways and providing a protective mechanism against cell death. Despite very few studies on this issue, here we discuss those making major contribution to the field, also addressing the pathophysiological implication of nuclear NCX malfunction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This review describes the role of NCX exchanger subtypes in demyelinating diseases. • Dysfunctional NCX activity contribute to axonal pathology in demyelinated axons. • NCX activity is required for myelin synthesis in oligodendroglia. • Defining the role of NCXs will help to identify neuroprotective/remyelinating treatments. Intracellular [Na+] i and [Ca2+] i imbalance significantly contribute to neuro-axonal dysfunctions and maladaptive myelin repair or remyelination failure in chronic inflammatory demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Progress in recent years has led to significant advances in understanding how [Ca2+] i signaling network drive degeneration or remyelination of demyelinated axons. The Na+/Ca2+ exchangers (NCXs), a transmembrane protein family including three members encoded by ncx1 , ncx2 , and ncx3 genes, are emerging important regulators of [Na+] i and [Ca2+] i both in neurons and glial cells. Here we review recent advance highlighting the role of NCX exchangers in axons and myelin-forming cells, i.e. oligodendrocytes, which represent the major targets of the aberrant inflammatory attack in multiple sclerosis. The contribution of NCX subtypes to axonal pathology and myelin synthesis will be discussed. Although a definitive understanding of mechanisms regulating axonal pathology and remyelination failure in chronic demyelinating diseases is still lacking and requires further investigation, current knowledge suggest that NCX activity plays a crucial role in these processes. Defining the relative contributions of each NCX transporter in axon pathology and myelinating glia will constitute not only a major advance in understanding in detail the intricate mechanism of neurodegeneration and remyelination failure in demyelinating diseases but also will help to identify neuroprotective or remyelinating strategies targeting selective NCX exchangers as a means of treating MS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Na+/Ca2+ exchanger NCX3 is an important regulator of sodium and calcium homeostasis in oligodendrocyte lineage. To date, no information is available on the effects resulting from prolonged exposure to NCX3 blockers and subsequent drug washout in oligodendroglia. Here, we investigated, by means of biochemical, morphological and functional analyses, the pharmacological effects of the NCX3 inhibitor, the 5–amino‐N‐butyl‐2–(4–ethoxyphenoxy)-benzamide hydrochloride (BED), on NCXs expression and activity, as well as intracellular [Na+] i and [Ca2+] i levels, during treatment and following drug washout both in human MO3.13 oligodendrocytes and rat primary oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). BED exposure antagonized NCX activity, induced OPCs proliferation and [Na+] i accumulation. By contrast, 2 days of BED washout after 4 days of treatment significantly upregulated low molecular weight NCX3 proteins, reversed NCX activity, and increased intracellular [Ca2+] i. This BED-free effect was accompanied by an upregulation of NCX3 expression in oligodendrocyte processes and accelerated expression of myelin markers in rat primary oligodendrocytes. Collectively, our findings show that the pharmacological inhibition of the NCX3 exchanger with BED blocker maybe followed by a rebound increase in NCX3 expression and reversal activity that accelerate myelin sheet formation in oligodendrocytes. In addition, they indicate that a particular attention should be paid to the use of NCX inhibitors for possible rebound effects, and suggest that further studies will be necessary to investigate whether selective pharmacological modulation of NCX3 exchanger may be exploited to benefit demyelination and remyelination in demyelinating diseases. • The NCX3 exchanger regulates sodium and calcium signalling in oligodendrocytes and plays a role in myelin synthesis. • The NCX3 inhibitor BED antagonizes I NCX , induced OPCs proliferation and [Na+] i accumulation. • BED-free washout is followed by a rebound increase in [Ca+2] i , upregulated NCX3 expression and reversal I NCX. • BED-free washout accelerates oligodendrocyte maturation and benefit myelin formation. • Attention should be paid to the use of NCX inhibitors for possible rebound effects after drug suspension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been implicated in the pathophysiology of many neurologic disorders and brain dysfunction. In the same pathological settings evidence has been provided in favour of a participation of intracellular Ca2+ concentration altered homeostasis in the chain of events leading to neuronal apoptosis. In the present review literature reports and experimental data on the relationship between caspase activation and alteration of intracellular calcium concentrations in the mechanisms triggering neuronal apoptosis are discussed. The data gathered support the conclusion that during oxidative stress in neuronal cells the production of ROS triggers a mechanism that, through the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria and caspase-3 activation, leads to apoptosis; the concomitant ROS-mediated elevation of intracellular Ca2+ concentration triggers caspase-2 activation but both events do not seem to be involved in cell death. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Amyloid β 1–42 (Aβ 1–42) protein aggregation is considered one of the main triggers of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, we examined the in vitro anti-amyloidogenic activity of the isoindolinone derivative 3-(3-oxoisoindolin-1-yl)pentane-2,4-dione (ISOAC1) and its neuroprotective potential against the Aβ 1–42 toxicity. By performing the Thioflavin T fluorescence assay, Western blotting analyses, and Circular Dichroism experiments, we found that ISOAC1 was able to reduce the Aβ 1–42 aggregation and conformational transition towards β-sheet structures. Interestingly, in silico studies revealed that ISOAC1 was able to bind to both the monomer and a pentameric protofibril of Aβ 1–42 , establishing a hydrophobic interaction with the PHE19 residue of the Aβ 1–42 KLVFF motif. In vitro analyses on primary cortical neurons showed that ISOAC1 counteracted the increase of intracellular Ca2+ levels and decreased the Aβ 1–42 -induced toxicity, in terms of mitochondrial activity reduction and increase of reactive oxygen species production. In addition, confocal microscopy analyses showed that ISOAC1 was able to reduce the Aβ 1–42 intraneuronal accumulation. Collectively, our results clearly show that ISOAC1 exerts a neuroprotective effect by reducing the Aβ 1–42 aggregation and toxicity, hence emerging as a promising compound for the development of new Aβ-targeting therapeutic strategies for AD treatment. [Display omitted] • ISOAC1 inhibits the Amyloid β 1–42 (Aβ 1–42) aggregation and conformational transition to β-sheet structures. • ISOAC1 reduces the neurotoxicity of Aβ 1–42 aggregates. • ISOAC1 interacts with the PHE19 residue of both monomeric and protofibrillar Aβ 1–42. • ISOAC protects primary cortical neurons from Aβ 1–42 toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

NGF induces neuronal differentiation by modulating [Ca2+]i. However, the role of the three isoforms of the main Ca2+-extruding system, the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX), in NGF-induced differentiation remains unexplored. We investigated whether NCX1, NCX2, and NCX3 isoforms could play a relevant role in neuronal differentiation through the modulation of [Ca2+]i and the Akt pathway. NGF caused progressive neurite elongation; a significant increase of the well known marker of growth cones, GAP-43; and an enhancement of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ content and of Akt phosphorylation through an early activation of ERK1/2. Interestingly, during NGF-induced differentiation, the NCX1 protein level increased, NCX3 decreased, and NCX2 remained unaffected. At the same time, NCX total activity increased. Moreover, NCX1 colocalized and coimmunoprecipitated with GAP-43, and NCX1 silencing prevented NGF-induced effects on GAP-43 expression, Akt phosphorylation, and neurite outgrowth. On the other hand, the overexpression of its neuronal splicing isoform, NCX1.4, even in the absence of NGF, induced an increase in Akt phosphorylation and GAP-43 protein expression. Interestingly, tetrodotoxin-sensitive Na+ currents and 1,3-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 4,4'-[1,4,10-trioxa-7,13-diazacyclopentadecane-7,13-diylbis(5-methoxy-6,12-benzofurandiyl)]bis-, tetrakis[(acetyloxy)methyl] ester-detected [Na+]i significantly increased in cells overexpressing NCX1.4 as well as ER Ca2+ content. This latter effect was prevented by tetrodotoxin. Furthermore, either the [Ca2+]i chelator(1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid) (BAPTA-AM) or the PI3K inhibitor LY 294002 prevented Akt phosphorylation and GAP-43 protein expression rise in NCX1.4 overexpressing cells. Moreover, in primary cortical neurons, NCX1 silencing prevented Akt phosphorylation, GAP-43 and MAP2 overexpression, and neurite elongation. Collectively, these data show that NCX1 participates in neuronal differentiation through the modulation of ER Ca2+ content and PI3K signaling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]