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Public social responsibility includes the implementation of policies to reduce gender differences in employment. This responsibility is even more essential in rural areas facing serious socioeconomic and demographic sustainability challenges. Using data from a survey on inhabitants of the so-called "depopulated Spain", this study find gender-related differences as regards the factors conditioning the desire to emigrate. The intention to leave their regions of origin is stronger in women than in men, with this intention being affected by demographic and socioeconomic variables. Young and middle-aged women are mainly employed in the service sector, and those with a higher level of education have a clear desire to emigrate to larger, more populated municipalities. In addition, different male and female profiles characterise the prioritisation of a series of public policies that the public administration could promote to enhance equality, in economic terms, in the field of social protection and to incentivise the presence of women in company representative bodies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Spain, the depopulation of the rural environment has led to the existence of a rural-urban gap that especially affects the most isolated and smallest towns. Citizens' perception of the solution to the problem differs according to population size and with respect to the time horizon in which the solution can be found. The present study is aimed at municipalities whose population does not exceed 20,000 inhabitants. For there to be confidence in the solution to the problem, it is necessary for public institutions to implement a variety of public policies that lead in that direction. The results of this study show that the inhabitants of small towns consider to policies focused on enhancing infrastructures to be the most appropriate for the long-term solution to the problem of depopulation; regardless of the size of population, the respondent think that the promotion of entrepreneurship, bolstering e-government may be a key element to avoid individuals moving away from rural settings. Finally, it is the citizens in medium-sized and large towns, who trust in policies aimed at promoting the rural environment as well as the improvement of innovation in agriculture, respectively, as the key to solving the problem of rural depopulation. • This study makes a contribution to the literature by analysing citizens perception of the problem of depopulation. • Inhabitants are not confident that the problem of depopulation will be solved in the medium term. • Young people are more optimistic than middle-aged people and older adults. • The promotion of entrepreneurship and funding may be an appropriate policy in medium and large towns. • It is the citizens in medium-sized towns, who trust in policies aimed at promoting and improving the rural environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The digital divide by municipal size persists and digital inclusion is not guaranteed. • Access to ICT does not automatically lead to greater use of technologies. • Satisfaction with ICT development is not related to the levels of ICT use. • Population profiles are identified regarding satisfaction with ICT development. • ICT public policies are not sufficient to retain and settle the population. Drawing on the findings of a survey administered to 514 inhabitants of the so-called hollowed-out Spain (la España vaciada, referring to the country's depopulated regions), this study provides a basis for assessing the effectiveness and impact of ICT-based public policies. The study facilitates so-called Rural Proofing , identifying the weaknesses on which the administration can focus to improve living conditions and so prevent the exodus from rural areas. The existence of a digital divide was corroborated, as was the presence of different population profiles related to satisfaction with ICT development. Digital inclusion is not guaranteed across all groups of population, while greater use of ICT is not associated with greater satisfaction. Furthermore, the levels of access, use and satisfaction with ICT development alone do not appear to be sufficient to deter depopulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Growth in investment in e-government may increase the use of e-government by citizens, but not proportionally. • Only a citizen-centred, well communicated and promoted policy can balance the levels of e-government supply and demand. • The use of e-government cannot prevent a decline in confidence, but it does appear to have an attenuating effect. • Greater levels of trust seem to encourage greater use of e-government. • The differences in use across countries in Europe are influenced by the digital divide due to income and education. Despite the significant amounts of public investment devoted to enhancing e-government over the last ten years, citizens' use of this service is still limited, posing a challenge to national governments. By analysing panel data derived from 27 European countries for the period 2010 to 2018, our work confirms that citizens' use of e-government services is influenced by supply-side e-government evaluations, citizens' trust in governments and the digital divide associated to income and education. Moreover, a longitudinal cluster analysis allows us to identify patterns of behaviour between the countries as regards the way those variables interact with the use of e-government services over time. Relevant practical implications derive from the research that can guide public policy in the area of e-government. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]