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Abstract: Objective: Previous studies focused on investigating the separate effects of anxiety, cognitive load, and expertise on perceptual-motor performance, but the combined effects of these factors have not been studied yet. The objective of the current study was to investigate these factors in combination. Design: Eleven expert dart players and nine novices performed a dart throwing task in low-anxiety (LA) and high-anxiety (HA) conditions with and without a secondary task. Method: To manipulate anxiety the dart throwing task was performed low (LA) and high (HA) on a climbing wall with and without the secondary counting backwards task. Performance and efficiency of task execution and gaze behavior were assessed. Results: The anxiety manipulation evoked a decrease in dart performance, but only for the novices. Increases in mental effort and dart times and a decrease in response rate on the secondary task were observed for both groups. This shows that there were decreases in processing efficiency with anxiety. Most important, the anxiety-induced decrease in performance for the novices was accompanied by final fixations on the target that were substantially shorter and deviated off the target earlier. The dual task did not affect performance. Conclusion: Anxiety affects efficiency and sometimes performance in far aiming tasks. Changes are accompanied by changes in gaze behavior, particularly the final fixation on the target. All in all, findings provide support for Attentional Control Theory as a suitable framework to explain the effects of anxiety, a cognitive secondary task, and expertise in far aiming tasks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: The aim of the study was to examine whether training with mild levels of anxiety helps in maintaining performance under higher levels of anxiety. Methods: Novices practiced dart throwing while they were hanging low on a climbing wall either with or without mild anxiety. After training, participants were tested under low, mild, and high anxiety (in the latter case high on the climbing wall). Results: Despite systematic increases in anxiety, heart rate, and perceived effort from low to mild to high anxiety the group that had trained with anxiety performed equally well on all three tests, while performance of the control group deteriorated with high anxiety. Conclusion: It is concluded that practicing perceptual-motor tasks under mild levels of anxiety can also prevent choking when performing with higher levels of anxiety. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objectives: Instructions to avoid an action may increase the tendency to engage in the action (ironic effects) or cause an undesirable increase in the opposing action (overcompensation). The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between gaze behavior and performance in a golf putting task when these kinds of unwanted effects occur. Methods: Twenty-seven participants performed an indoor golf putting task with instructions to land the ball on the hole (neutral instructions), land the ball on the hole but avoid putting too short and land the ball on the hole but avoid putting too long. Order of instruction was randomized and both gaze behavior and putting performance were assessed. Results: When participants gazed for longer at a specific area (in front, behind or at the hole) the ball was more likely to land in that area. Subsequent analyses confirmed a tight relationship between gaze behavior and putting performance when overcompensation occurred. For ironic effects such a tight relationship was only found when participants were instructed to avoid putting too short, but not when participants were instructed to avoid putting too long. Conclusions: Overall the results make clear that changes in (visual) attention play a key role in unwanted effects. Consequences of the results for Wegner''s [(1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34–52] theory of ironic processes are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: From an ecological psychological perspective, the current chapter discusses the influence of anxiety on the perception, selection, and realization of affordances in sports and other high-pressure contexts, particularly police work. Drawing on recent developments in the anxiety-performance literature (i.e., the attentional control theory) the authors'' experimental work on the impact of anxiety on perceptual-motor performance is described. Furthermore, several experiments showing positive effects of training with anxiety on performance under pressure are discussed. We argue that through reality-based training with anxiety, processes that underlie performance might be recalibrated to the new task constraints, thereby preventing a degradation of eventual performance in stressful situations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objectives: To examine the relationship between dieting behavior and body image in female aesthetic athletes. Methods: Seventeen elite gymnasts, 51 non-elite gymnasts and a control group of 85 schoolgirls, participating in non-elite, merely recreational non-aesthetic sports, completed self-report measures of dieting behaviors and body image. Results: After controlling for BMI, the results showed that elite gymnasts dieted more often than controls, although they were not more negative about their body. Furthermore, non-elite gymnasts dieted as much as controls and had a more positive body image. Despite what general theories predict, the gymnasts’ dieting was not so much related to a negative body image but rather to weight-related causal attributions or perceived weight-related coach pressure. Conclusions: Whereas controls believe that ‘thin is beautiful’, gymnasts seem more convinced or persuaded that ‘thin is going to win’. Future research should take into consideration that dieting and body image are likely to be developed differently in the context of aesthetic sports. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objectives: Two experiments were conducted to investigate manifestations of anxiety at the subjective, physiological, and behavioural level of analysis.Design: In Experiment 1 we investigated the manifestations of state anxiety at the first two levels by comparing low- and high-anxiety conditions during climbing. In Experiment 2 we explored behavioural differences under these conditions.Methods: We manipulated anxiety by using a climbing wall with routes defined at different heights (low and high). Participants were 13 and 17 novice climbers in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively (ages 19–30 years). We measured self-reported state anxiety, heart rate (Experiments 1 and 2), blood lactate concentration and muscle fatigue (Experiment 1), and climbing time and fluency of movements (Experiment 2).Results: At the level of subjective experience we found that when novices climbed a route high on a climbing wall they reported significantly more anxiety than when they traversed an identical route low on the climbing wall. At the physiological level, they exhibited significantly higher heart rates, more muscle fatigue, and higher blood lactate concentrations. The results of Experiment 2 showed that state anxiety also affected participants’ movement behaviour, which was evidenced by an increased geometric index of entropy and by longer climbing times.Conclusions: Results indicated that anxiety indeed manifested itself at three levels. A possible explanation for the effects of anxiety that is also found in the literature is that a temporary regress may occur to a movement execution that is associated with earlier stages of motor learning. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• A police officer provided data on stress, mood, and saliva samples over three weeks. • Salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase did not increase in moments of stress. • Calmness, but not valence and energy deteriorated in moments of stress. • The officer showed an elevated, flat daily cortisol profile compared to norm values. • Blunted stress responses might be explained by generally high levels of arousal. On duty, police officers are exposed to a variety of acute, threatening stress situations and organizational demands. In line with the allostatic load model, the resulting acute and chronic stress might have tremendous consequences for police officers' work performance and psychological and physical health. To date, limited research has been conducted into the underlying biological, dynamic mechanisms of stress in police service. Therefore, this ecological momentary assessment study examined the associations of stress, mood and biological stress markers of a 28-year-old male police officer in a N-of-1 study over three weeks (90 data points). Four times a day (directly after waking up, 30 minutes later, 6 hours later, before going to bed), he answered questions about the perceived stress and mood using a smartphone application. With each data entry, he collected saliva samples for the later assessment of salivary cortisol (sCort) and alpha-amylase (sAA). In addition, data was collected after six police incidents during duty. sCort and sAA were not related to perceived stress in daily life and did not increase in police incidents. Regarding mood measures, deterioration of calmness, but not valence and energy was associated with perceived stress. The results suggest continued police service to constitute a major chronic stressor resulting in an inability to mount a proper response to further acute stress. As an indicator of allostatic load, psychological and biological hyporesponsivity in moments of stress may have negative consequences for police officers' health and behavior in critical situations that require optimal performance. Prospectively, this research design may also become relevant when evaluating the efficacy of individualized stress management interventions in police training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although stressors are frequently linked to several negative health outcomes, experiencing stressors may be necessary for enhancing performance. At present, the literature is lacking a unified, comprehensive framework that accounts for both positive and negative outcomes following stressors. Therefore, we introduce the framework of hormesis, which has been applied in biological research for decades. According to hormesis, small-to-medium doses of a stressor can stimulate an organism's response, while large doses cause detrimental effects. In this article, we argue that these dose-response dynamics can be found in various domains of performance psychology (i.e., eustress and distress, psychological momentum, emotions, motivation, confidence, cognitive performance, training, skill acquisition, adversity, and trauma). Furthermore, hormesis also accounts for the inter- and intra-individual variability commonly found in responses to stressors. Finally, from an applied perspective, leveraging hormesis may stimulate new psychological interventions that mimic the well-known effects of (toxic) vaccinations at the level of behavior. • A unified, comprehensive framework for different stress responses is lacking. • Hormesis is considered as the fundamental dose-response model for stressors. • Hormesis is common in psychology suggesting that it can be scaled to behavior. • Interventions may mimic the mechanism of vaccinations at the level of behavior. • Hormesis can utilized to identify periods when interventions are most effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives There is virtually no literature on how to assess competencies of applied sport psychologists. We assessed casework of applied sport psychology students and compared written case report assessment (WCRA) with structured case presentation assessment (SCPA) on reliability and acceptability (e.g., validity, transparency, feedback function and preference of methods, as perceived by students and assessors). Design A quantitative, comparative study of two assessment methods. Method Participants were 11 students, nine supervisors and three exam committee members. A number of 18 cases were evaluated with both WCRA by the supervisor and SCPA by two exam committee members. Ten of these cases were also evaluated with WCRA by exam committee members. Interrater reliability measures were calculated and compared for the different assessment methods. Participants' perception of the validity, transparency, and feedback function of the methods, and the preferences for assessment methods were surveyed with a brief questionnaire. Results SCPA by the exam committee resulted in higher interrater reliability than WCRA by supervisor and exam committee. The feedback function of SCPA seemed superior to WCRA by either supervisor or exam committee. For assessment by the exam committee, the perceived validity and transparency of SCPA seemed higher than of WCRA. Students and exam committee had the highest preference for SCPA by supervisor and exam committee. Conclusions Overall it can be concluded that, for assessment by the exam committee, structured case presentations provided a more reliable and acceptable method of assessment than written case reports only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study tested whether threat-induced errors in police officers' shooting decisions may be prevented through practice. Using a video-based test, 57 Police officers executed shooting responses against a suspect who rapidly appeared with (shoot) or without (don't shoot) a firearm. Threat was manipulated by switching on (high-threat) or switching off (low-threat) a “shootback canon” that could fire small plastic bullets at the officers. After an initial pretest, officers were divided over four different practice groups and practiced their shooting decisions for three consecutive weeks. Effects of practice were evaluated on a posttest. On the pretest, all groups experienced more anxiety and executed more false-positive responses under high-threat. Despite practice, these effects persisted on the posttest and remained equally strong for all practice groups. It is concluded that the impact of threat on police officers' shooting decisions is robust and may be hard to prevent within the limits of available practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Supervised experience is a crucial element in the education of trainee sport psychologists (TSPs). Insight into the issues that are raised in supervision is relevant for the development of educational programs. The purpose of this study was to gain insight into supervisory issues of TSPs. Design A mixed methods design was employed. Method 369 supervision questions from fourteen TSPs were collected from written supervisory reports. The supervision questions were initially rated on the supervisory issues described by Loganbill, Hardy, and Delworth (1982) and Rabinowitz, Heppner, and Roehlke (1986). Inter-rater agreement and occurrence of issues were calculated. An alternative model for supervision questions of TSPs was developed through inductive and deductive analyses. Results For most of the supervisory issues described by Loganbill et al. (1982) and Rabinowitz et al. (1986) the inter-rater agreement and occurrence was low. An alternative model was developed consisting of two higher-order categories (‘Know-how’ and ‘Professional development’), six lower-order categories (‘Intake’, ‘Treatment plan’, ‘Execution’, ‘Reflections’, ’Working principles’ and ‘Coping with dilemmas’) and 19 separate themes. Conclusions The supervisory issues proposed by Loganbill et al. (1982) and Rabinowitz et al. (1986) do not fully capture the learning needs for supervision as formulated by the TSPs studied. Our alternative model provides an overview of supervision questions of TSPs. The developed model may contribute to the quality of trainees' learning in supervision by helping both trainees and supervisors prepare for supervision, and by helping sport psychology educators to offer efficacious curricula and learning experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: To examine the relationships between disordered eating in female gymnasts and dancers and their perspective towards achievement in sport and dance, respectively. With an emphasis on outperforming others (ego involvement), more disordered eating was expected than when personal progress (task involvement) was emphasized. Methods: Ninety-four aesthetic performers from gymnastics (n =59) and dance (n =35) completed questionnaires measuring ego and task involvement (individual orientation and motivational climate), dieting, self-esteem, perfectionism and weight-related peer and coach pressure. Results: Partial correlations indicated that a stronger ego orientation was related to more dieting, greater perfectionism, more weight-related peer pressure, and lower self-esteem. Similar relationships were found for performance climate. Mastery climate on the other hand was negatively related to dieting, and coach and peer pressure, suggesting that when performers perceived the motivational climate as mastery, less frequent dieting was reported and less weight-related coach and peer pressure was perceived. No relationships were found between task orientation and disordered eating. Most importantly, regression analysis showed that after controlling for BMI, both ego orientation and mastery climate made a unique significant contribution to explaining dieting variance. Conclusions: Goal achievement theory is an important framework for explaining disordered eating in female aesthetic performers. Both ego orientation and mastery climate play a role in dieting of gymnasts and dancers. Aesthetic performers who are strongly ego-oriented tend to display more disordered eating correlates. Furthermore, it seems that to protect against disordered eating, coaches and teachers should create a mastery climate and target self-improvement and self-referenced comparisons over interpersonal competitiveness. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study tested whether adverse effects of state anxiety on attention and performance may be modulated by experience. Sixteen experienced and eleven inexperienced drivers drove in a simulator under low- and high-stress conditions. Anxiety was manipulated by competition, the presence of an evaluator, external video camera, and traffic noise. Most drivers showed greater anxiety scores and higher mean heart rates following manipulation. In both groups increased state anxiety decreased car speed control and caused more collisions, accompanied by fewer fixations of longer duration towards the driving lane across a horizontally narrower region. Inexperienced drivers increased the number of short fixations towards cars, while experienced drivers increased the number of short fixations on the speedometer. Although anxiety impairs processing efficiency and performance effectiveness for both groups, attentional changes differ as a function of experience. Inexperienced drivers tended to shift attention to threatening stimuli, while experienced drives were more likely to consciously monitor task goal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated how Dutch police officers perceive their preparation for arrest and self-defence skills (ASDS) and their ability to manage violence on duty. Furthermore, we assessed whether additional experience (i.e., by having encountered violence on duty or by practicing martial arts) and self-perceived anxiety have an influence on these perceptions. Results of an online questionnaire ( n = 922) showed that having additional experience was associated with self-perceived better performance. Officers who experience anxiety more often, on the other hand, reported more problems. Although most officers report sufficiently effective performance on duty, they, especially those with additional experience, feel that training frequency is too low and that the currently taught ASDS are only moderately usable (at least with the current amount of training). Based on the results, we suggest that increasing officers' ASDS experience, teaching officers to perform with high anxiety, or reconsidering the taught skills, may be necessary to further improve performance of police officers on duty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives It has been repeatedly demonstrated that athletes in a state of ego depletion do not perform up to their capabilities in high pressure situations. We assume that momentarily available self-control strength determines whether individuals in high pressure situations can resist distracting stimuli. Design/method In the present study, we applied a between-subjects design, as 31 experienced basketball players were randomly assigned to a depletion group or a non-depletion group. Participants performed 30 free throws while listening to statements representing worrisome thoughts (as frequently experienced in high pressure situations) over stereo headphones. Participants were instructed to block out these distracting audio messages and focus on the free throws. We postulated that depleted participants would be more likely to be distracted. They were also assumed to perform worse in the free throw task. Results The results supported our assumption as depleted participants paid more attention to the distracting stimuli. In addition, they displayed worse performance in the free throw task. Conclusions These results indicate that sufficient levels of self-control strength can serve as a buffer against distracting stimuli under pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]