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Malawi, one of the poorest countries in the world, is mainly dependent on wood biomass for its energy supply. This biomass, in most cases, is procured in an unsustainable manner, such as from the country's dwindling natural forests. Under these circumstances, there is an urgent need to develop more environmentally friendly and reliable energy sources. Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit shell, a waste product of baobab fruit pulp processing, has high lignin and cellulose contents with a good heating value. The main objective of this work is to determine the product characteristics desired by urban consumers of a substitute for firewood and charcoal. Using a discrete choice experiment, our work analyzes consumer preferences for Baobab fruit shell briquettes in Mzuzu City, as a potential alternative to current fuel sources for cooking and heating. A questionnaire divided into 3 parts was used to collect primary data from 203 consumers of fuelwood and/or charcoal. Apart from choice sets, respondents answered questions related to procurement issues of fuel sources, their relation to Baobab trees, and socioeconomic conditions. The results show that a higher willingness to pay is attached to the products with lower smoke formation, exclusion of children's help for procurement, and extensive time intervals for procurement needs. • The use of baobab biomass can alleviate fuelwood scarcity and add value to waste resources. • Better availability and affordability of fuel improve public health and nutrition. • Discrete choice method estimates willingness to pay for baobab briquettes. • Reduced smoke contributes the most to willingness to pay for baobab briquette. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sustainable harvesting of resin yield from forests plays a crucial role in providing valuable renewable resources. Specifically, Pinus brutia forests in Türkiye are significant for their oleoresin, utilized in various industries. Yet, understanding how dendrometric and meteorological factors influence resin yield is essential for optimizing production while ensuring forest sustainability. This study aimed to estimate oleoresin yield in Pinus brutia plantations using dendrometric parameters (such as diameter at breast height and tree height, basal area, volume and canopy closure) and meteorological parameters (including monthly; minimum, maximum, and average temperature, precipitation, humidity, vapor pressure, and wind speed), to identify the key factors affecting resin production. Resin was collected from 389 Pinus brutia trees of varying diameters across 27 different plots using the bark streak tapping method, with data recorded every 15 days over a year. Weighted Leased Square regression analysis was conducted to explore the relationship between resin yield and the aforementioned dendrometric and meteorological parameters. The analysis revealed that diameter at breast height, monthly average temperature, wind speed, and precipitation significantly influence resin yield. The study underscores the intricate interplay between these factors and resin production, indicating that larger diameters and specific meteorological conditions—especially average temperature, wind speed, and precipitation—are positively correlated with increased resin output. The findings suggest that sustainable resin extraction practices in Pinus brutia forests should account for not only the physical characteristics of the trees but also the local meteorological conditions to maximize yield without compromising forest health. This research contributes to the development of more effective guidelines for oleoresin harvesting, ensuring both economic viability and ecological preservation. • Integrates both dendrometric and meteorological factors to estimate resin yield. • Identifies clear seasonal variations in resin production. • Provides actionable insights for optimal forestry management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though some Dracaena species are used as medicine, their utilization as food is rather unusual. In northern Angola, however, leaves and underground tubers of Dracaena camerooniana Baker are frequently consumed. In particular, the leaves are of increasing economic value in the region. But the anatomy and nutritional aspects of the plant have not been studied so far. Therefore, a detailed anatomic description of the plant was conducted. In a second step the nutritional value of the defined material was analysed, providing a basis for the discussion of a more intensive utilisation of this rainforest shrub. The leaf anatomy of Dracaena camerooniana differs from the species of the genus that have been examined so far, in showing adaptations to wet climatic conditions. The stems produce a secondary thickening meristem with amphivasal secondary vascular bundles. During tuber formation, the parenchyma of the pith in the vascular cylinder of the root markedly increases. From a nutritional point of view, leaves do not noteworthy contribute to vitamin intake. The nutritional composition of the tubers is comparable to that of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.). However, a high fructose value indicates inulin as a storage carbohydrate. Inspite of its rather moderate nutritional values, Dracaena camerooniana is an indigenous addition to the diet of the Angolan population that could also be cultivated in the future due to the easy vegetative propagation. [Display omitted] • Dracaena camerooniana is an underestimated unknown wild food from Northern Angola. • The leaf anatomy differs from other studied Dracaena species. • The root tuber formation, the parenchyma of the pith in the vascular cylinder of the root markedly increases. • The high fructose value of the tubers indicates inulin as a storage carbohydrate. • The nutritional composition of the tubers is comparable to cassava and potato. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Amazon Basin, some non-timber forest products (NTFPs), such as the ecologically and economically important palm Mauritia flexuosa , are extracted intensively and across large areas – the ecological effect of which is unclear. In this study, we sought to better understand the scale and scope of M. flexuosa fruit harvest in the Peruvian Amazon, the destructive harvest of which has caused conservation concern for decades, by collecting data on the amounts and origins of the fruit entering the city of Iquitos, Peru – making harvest patterns spatially and temporally explicit for the first time. We achieved this by examining shipping logs and monitoring key ports and bus lines. During one year, we recorded 227 943 sacks (8206 mT) of fruit entering Iquitos, originating from at least 267 communities across the region's major watersheds. A large proportion of fruit originated from communities in the Medio Bajo Marañón and Tigre watersheds which consistently sent high volumes of fruit to Iquitos from November through March. However, from May through August a greater number of communities with frequent, low volume extraction in the Amazonas, Bajo Amazonas, and Napo watersheds contributed most fruit. It appears that this spatio-temporal shift in the exportation points of fruit reflects regional variation in fruiting phenology of M. flexuosa across the region. Finer scale trends could be influenced by social and market factors, especially market access as influenced by ship routes. The massive region-wide extraction that we report for this ecologically important NTFP has many potential ramifications for ecological change and carbon sequestration which warrant further study. Factors impacting extraction patterns as well as potential ecological consequences need to be properly examined before promoting NTFP extraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural households in developing countries often depend on non-timber forest products (NTFPs), including foods, traditional medicines, fuelwood, fodder, and construction and craft materials such as bamboo and rattan, for their livelihoods, but the forests that supply NTFPs are subject to competition from other land uses. NTFP collectors who are unable to sustain their livelihoods because of changes caused in the NTFP collection environment by deforestation and degradation may even convert surrounding forests to agricultural land to compensate for their reduced incomes. This feedback loop of deforestation and degradation can create further conflicts among natural resource users and undermine long-term development goals. Here, we aimed to advance the discussion of forest conservation interventions in protected areas in developing countries—particularly the discussion of patrolling strategies in and around existing wildlife sanctuaries—by presenting a new approach that uses the case of NTFP collection and a human geography perspective. We used a structured questionnaire composed of closed questions to measure the awareness of village households of the impacts of deforestation and/or illegal extraction of trees on NTFP collection over a short period of time (2014–2016) near the Prey Long Wildlife Sanctuary in the eastern part of the Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia. Our survey was based on the conceptual framework of Bohensky and Lynam (Ecol. Soc. 10, 11; 2005) that people in complex adaptive systems change their behaviour after becoming aware of the impact or consequences of a change. The probability of a village having an affected household (i.e., a household that was aware of the impact) was predicted by using generalized linear mixed models. By using identified geospatial indicators of environmental and socioeconomic aspects, including distance between the village and the wildlife sanctuary, size of deforested area per capita in 2014–2016 within a 10-km radius of the village and proportion of households in the village that collect NTFPs for cash income, we predicted the spatial distribution of villages with affected NTFP-collecting households. Priority areas for NTFP collection were then mapped with reference to the identified indicators. By using these results, we present an approach to breaking the deforestation feedback loop by identifying priority areas for patrolling and other forest conservation interventions in the wildlife sanctuary. • We mapped the distribution of NTFP-collecting households affected by deforestation. • We also mapped priority areas for NTFP collection. • These maps help with the triaging of forest conservation interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rubber extraction in the Amazon faces enormous ecological and economic challenges. We modeled the ecology (tree density and forest yields) and the production chain, including rents of the three major rubber products: Pressed Virgin Rubber (PVR), Liquid Latex (LL), and Liquid Smoked Sheet (LSS) from native forests and from plantations in Southern Acre, including the emblematic Chico Mendes Reserve. Our estimates show that, in native forests, tree density ranges from 0 to 4 trees/ha (average = 1.67 trees/ha), while productivity varies from 1 to 3 l/tree/year (average = 2.26 l/tree/year) with yields between 1 and 6 l/ha/year. Our model estimates a potential annual production of 890 tons of dry rubber in the 2.5 million ha of forests of Southern Acre (average = 0.36 kg/ha/year). Rubber extraction in native forests is not economically viable without government subsidies. Mean Equivalent Annual Annuity (EAA) for LL is US$ 3.24 ha/year in a scenario with subsidies and of 75% of potential annual harvest. LSS from plantations reaches an EAA of US$ 270 ha/year if costs of formation are subsidized. Public subsidies or Payments for Ecosystem Services are essential to sustain, at least temporally, rubber tapper identity – an important Cultural Ecosystem Service of the Amazon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, thousands of orchid species are harvested from the wild. Widespread legal and illegal unsustainable trade has contributed to the decline of many species. However, there is also evidence of long-term, sustainable wild harvest of some orchid species that contribute to local livelihoods and cultural traditions. There is a clear need to help guide harvesters and resource managers towards sustainability. However, there is currently no appropriate framework to guide local harvest decisions, which is especially problematic given huge data limitations, variations in on-the-ground capacity to monitor and manage resources, and considering that the potential for sustainable harvest is context-specific. We reviewed the literature on orchid harvest, ecology and demography; assessed information on the life history of 27 harvested species; and drew on our experience with diverse orchid taxa to identify characteristics expected to influence harvest sustainability. We identified 23 characteristics within four themes: abundance and distribution; species traits related to growth and reproduction; local management practices; and demand. We selected 12 characteristics for which information was available for many species and observable in the field, and used an iterative process to develop a decision-making dichotomous key. The key identifies if and how the harvest of a given population at a given time can be conducted more sustainably, offering sets of considerations that harvesters and managers can use and adapt to local contexts. Critical research gaps include techniques for partial plant harvest and for augmentation; and investigation into the traits and protocols that have permitted long-term persistence and that can increase current sustainability. • Wild orchids are harvested globally, often unsustainably with little management. • Yet, some harvested species have persisted long-term, suggesting sustainability. • We identify observable characteristics that help determine sustainability outcomes. • We present a decision-making key to help guide more sustainable orchid harvest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi are crucial to forest ecosystem function and provide important provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. As major contributors to biomass decomposition, fungi are important to forest biogeochemical cycling and maintenance of vertebrate animal diversity. Many forest plant species live in a symbiotic relationship with a fungal partner that helps a host plant to acquire nutrients and water. In addition, edible fungi are recreationally as well as economically valuable. However, most fungi live in very cryptic locations (e.g. in soils and interior plant tissues) and are only visible when their ephemeral fruiting bodies are produced, making fungal occurrence difficult to detect and predict. While remote sensing has been used increasingly to identify and scale many forest characteristics (e.g. structure, function, and species diversity) related to myriad ecosystem services, the use of remotely sensed data in modelling the occurrence of fungi is largely unknown. We compared the performance of airborne lidar derived structural variables, including those associated with single tree detection, with variables derived from field inventories to model overall fungal species abundance as well as specific fungal guilds (i.e. a range of edibility from highly edible to very poisonous, and the number of fruiting bodies of saprotrophic and mutualistic ectomycorrhizal species) based on fruiting body sampling in a low range mountain forest (Bavarian Forest National Park). Lidar derived variables performed better than variables derived from field measurements to explain the abundance of all guilds combined, as well as the guilds of soil saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal fungi, and the yield of highly edible fungi. Variables derived from field measurements performed better than lidar derived variables in explaining the yield of very poisonous fungi. Upscaling of yield and abundance of fruiting bodies to the whole study area opens the avenue for managers to identify areas of high interest by mushroom pickers, as opposed to those of potential danger to people and those that co-occur with sensitive species and habitats of conservation relevance. Moreover, the strong, guild-specific relationships found between the occurrence of fungi and lidar derived variables opens new avenues for scaling to large areas the occurrence of members of this cryptic kingdom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The threatened tropical palm, Syagrus coronata , named licuri, is found in Brazil. • Their seeds are preyed by Pachymerus nucleorum beetle in pre-dispersal. • We found that total licuri density and tree richness were greater positively affected seed predation. • Seed predation was negatively affected by the abundance of fruiting individuals. • We suggest that fruit harvest could be focused in habitats with low licuri density. Seed predation is a major seed event in palms and affects seedling recruitment and the economic value of fruits. We investigated variations in the vegetative and reproductive traits, demography, habitat structure (tree richness), and pre-dispersal seed predation in the palm Syagrus coronata (Martius) Beccari (Arecaceae) by Pachymerus nucleorum (Fabricius) (Bruchinae) in habitats with different management intensities in the Brazilian semiarid region. In addition, we also assessed whether these plant variables affect seed predation. The palm tree known as licuri is widely used in extractivism and its cutting is prohibited by the Brazilian law. It is common to find isolated individuals in landscapes managed for agriculture and pasture. We predicted that more homogeneous microhabitats (with lower diversity of woody plants and higher density of licuri) with little fruiting synchrony would have higher levels of seed predation. Moreover, at the plant level, licuri individuals whose bunch are taller from the ground and with a larger number of fruits would sustain a lower proportion of pre-dispersal seed predation. The study was carried out in 13 sites, distributed between managed (pasture) and natural (Caatinga vegetation) habitats. Overall, 3,120 fruits were assessed, out of which 25.6% were preyed by P. nucleorum. We found that habitats with natural vegetation supported a higher density of adult licuri individuals and richness of woody plants, lower licuri fruiting synchrony, and greater seed predation. In addition, seed predation was positively affected by both total licuri abundance and tree richness, and negatively by the abundance of licuri fruiting at a micro-habitat level. This palm has unseasonal fruiting throughout all months of the year, and we suggested that the fruit harvest could be concentrated in the months of fruiting peak and the managed areas. Such measures could result in the harvest of healthier fruits by extractive populations and in seeds free from predation for use in habitat restoration through direct seeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human activities may determine the demography and the conservation of non-timber forest products (NTFP) in the tropics. The response of plant populations to anthropogenic factors can be assessed on plant demography at landscape level and used for decision-making in conservation and management strategies. We evaluated the influence of anthropogenic and ecological variables on the demography of the tree Caryocar brasiliense , the most harvested fruit species of the Brazilian Cerrado. For this, we assessed how size class distribution and density of plant life-stages of 34 populations were associated with land use and management over a large geographical area. Our results indicate that land use and management affects Caryocar demography. Most population size class distributions significantly fitted to reverse J-shaped curve, indicating good recruitment, and low fit populations were generally subjected to intense cattle ranching. Cattle ranching was also negatively associated with seedling and sapling densities and vegetation thinning with seedling, juvenile and adult densities. Current fruit harvesting levels are not affecting recruitment at the landscape level. We conclude that the negative effect of cattle and vegetation thinning can be mitigated by increasing the rotation time between areas and intervals between thinning events and that current fruit harvesting pressure on Caryocar populations is sustainable across landscape. The social and economic importance of this species is an ecological asset that can be used for the development of public policies promoting multiple uses of habitat remnants to ensure that the strategy of conservation under use is carried out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maple syrup is a non-timber forest resource, for which yield depends strongly on natural processes. Past research has heavily emphasized the role of weather and climate in determining sap flow, and the relationship between sap flow and syrup yield. However, syrup yield depends on sap sugar content, as well as sap flow. Although sap sugar content varies widely among years, less is known about the causes of this variation. Drawing on ecological theories for causes of mast-seeding in trees, we hypothesized that a trees’ carbohydrate stores would fluctuate through time in concert with seed production, and that this fluctuation would affect sap sugar and syrup yield. We evaluated weather variables and past seed production as possible causes of inter-annual variation in maple syrup yield in Vermont, USA. Past seed production was strongly correlated with current syrup yield, suggesting that carbohydrate costs of reproduction affect stores. Climate variables were also important for syrup yield, but were only statistically significant predictors after accounting for variation in seed production. Seed production occurs several months before syrup production, and can be used as a way to forecast expected syrup yields, and prepare harvest plans accordingly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copaíba oleoresin is a medicinal product obtained from several species of Copaifera trees ( Copaifera spp.), and it is used for its healing and anti-inflammatory properties. Oleoresin is extracted via holes drilled into the trunks of copaíba trees, which are then plugged and periodically harvested in repeated cycles. To date, the optimal harvesting cycle and the factors that influence oleoresin production are unknown. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to analyze various harvesting schedules to determine the optimal cycle in an attempt to obtain maximum oleoresin production or the maximum net present value associated with production. The study took place in Paragominas, Pará (Brazil), and based on the resulting data, a set of alternatives for 1- to 5-year cycles with a planning horizon of 10 years was created. The data were analyzed within two different contexts: a deterministic one and another scenario that assumed that certain variables exhibit non-deterministic behavior for which a Monte Carlo simulation was used. Based on the available data, three scenarios were proposed that differed according to the hypotheses employed to estimate production for years when no measurements are available. The results show that, regardless of the various contexts and scenarios, the optimal harvesting cycle for copaíba oleoresin is three years, which is consistent with some previously published recommendations. Finally, the opportunity cost of not choosing the optimal cycle does not seem to be very high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large numbers of epiphytic bromeliads are regularly harvested from the canopy of cloud forests for traditional uses and illegal trade, with detrimental effects on the viability of populations. Since a significant proportion of natural mortality in epiphytes is caused by detachment from the support trees, harvesting of fallen plants represents a potential supply for commercial use that would have no impact on bromeliad population dynamics. We evaluated the potential of four cloud forest sites in southern Mexico to supply epiphytic bromeliads for commercialization. Bromeliad diversity and abundance was determined by sampling eight trees in each forest site and the number of fallen plants from these trees was recorded over three years. To determine the size of the potential harvest from the forest floor, the rate of bromeliad fall, and the species, condition and size of fallen individuals were recorded monthly in 10 plots (10 x 10 m) at each site over a period of five months. Bromeliad fall rate varied from 26,910 to 92,712 rosettes ha-1 y-1. Of these, ca. 60% (16,770 to 55,992 rosettes ha-1 y-1) of the 18 species identified were in a suitable condition for commercialization. Diversity and abundance in the canopy were positively related to that of the fallen rosettes (P < 0.05), indicating that the harvesting rate can be estimated from population densities in the host trees and that the fallen plants could therefore be used to indirectly evaluate the epiphyte community. Assessment revealed that the forest canopy could act as a nursery to supply a constant "rain" of bromeliads with minimum production costs. Even one ha of cloud forest can supply thousands of marketable bromeliads every year. Harvesting of fallen epiphytic bromeliads could add to the diversification of cloud forest management, contribute to the reduction of excessive canopy harvesting pressure and supply plants for forest enrichment programs. The results of this study are discussed in the context of the local stakeholder participation and national conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Diversification is a hallmark of family-based rural production, but what happens when autarkic rural communities integrate into markets? Economic theory predicts that households will maintain diversified strategies when faced with risk; however, many studies have claimed that openness to markets drives specialisation to enhance returns. Nevertheless, there is little evidence about the association between trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and the diversity of NTFPs consumed. Relying on a household survey and systematic observations of Brazilian Amazonian Caboclos, we evaluated whether exposure to NTFP markets (effort and cash income) correlates with the diversity of NTFPs consumed (richness and Simpson diversity). The results were conflicting. First, there was variation across NTFP subtypes: although the variety (richness) of terrestrial NTFPs consumed (vegetables and hunted animals) was greater in households trading NTFPs, the richness of fish consumed was lower because fishing could not be pursued concurrently with activities related to NTFP trade. Second, the observed effects differed across indicators of diversity, which shows that intensification in the use of a few resources may occur. Third, the associations with alternative definitions of exposure to the NTFP market also differed. These results indicate that NTFP markets do not necessarily undermine local consumption diversity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Successful management of tropical forest resources depends upon an understanding of their patterns of density and spatial distribution, since these affect the potential for harvesting. The variation in these patterns across different spatial scales has rarely been explored. We assessed the extent to which different spatial scales are useful in understanding resource distribution, using the example of an economically-significant tropical tree genus, Copaifera, which is valued across Brazilian Amazonia for its medicinal oleoresin. We mapped the spatial distribution of Copaifera trees at three nested spatial scales: basin-wide (across Brazilian Amazonia), landscape (across two contiguous extractive reserves) and local (within a 100-ha plot). Using data from our own study and an Amazon-wide forest inventory (Projeto RADAMBRASIL), we quantified the population distribution, density and size structure at the genus and species level at all three scales, relating these to two environmental variables – forest type and elevation. Spatial statistics were used to further characterize the resource at the landscape and local levels. The distribution, density and adult population structure differed between species and forest types at all three spatial scales. Overall tree densities ranged from 0.37ha–1 (basin-wide scale) to 1.13ha–1 (local scale) but varied between forest types, with várzea containing a Copaifera tree density just 43% of that in terra firme forest at the landscape scale. Spatial distribution analyses showed significant clumping of some species, especially C. multijuga which averaged 61m between neighbouring trees. We compare our cross-scale density estimates and discuss the relative merits of studying the distribution of non-timber forest products (NTFP) at more than one spatial scale. Our results have implications for the management and extraction of this important Amazonian forest resource. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Resin production in trees probably depends on trade-offs within the tree, its environment and on tapping activities. Frankincense, the highly esteemed resin from dry woodland frankincense trees of Boswellia papyrifera is exploited in traditional ways for millennia. New exploitation practices lead to weak trees and non-sustainable resin production. For 500 trees from four populations of B. papyrifera we evaluated how frankincense yield is affected by different tapping intensities (number of incision spots) and frequencies (number of resin collection rounds during the dry season), since both of them have been intensified recently. These effects are considered for trees of different size, since larger trees probably provide more resources for resin production. We predicted that frankincense production would initially increase with tapping intensity and tapping frequency, but later level-off because of resin depletion. Frankincense production varied highly: yield per tree per year of all 500 monitored trees averaged 261g (±231, but largely varied and ranged from 41 to 1829g. We indeed found that resin yield increased with tapping intensity, but not anymore beyond an intensity of 6–9 incision spots. Yield peaked around the seventh collection round, and declined thereafter. Yield increased with trunk diameter, but leveled-off beyond trees with a stem diameter of >20cm. These patterns were similar across populations, and between contrasting areas. Our results suggest that high tapping intensity risks short-term resource depletion, warranting tuning down the intensity of the current collection practices. Less intense tapping rounds per season will reduce damage, increase the health of tree populations, and contribute to long term frankincense production. This study thus allows for developing less damaging and more sustainable management for frankincense trees. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Lambusango Forest, Buton, Indonesia, is an example of the potential for conflict between forest conservation and long standing local extraction of Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs), in this case rattan cane harvesting. This paper investigates the impacts of rattan harvesting on tree and understorey vegetation structure, species richness and diversity. Tree and understorey vegetation characteristics and soil and topographic variables were recorded in forest plots. Interviews with rattan harvesters recorded information on harvesting techniques and locations. The relationships between tree and understorey vegetation characteristics and soils, topography and rattan harvesting techniques were assessed with the multivariate ordination technique of Redundancy Analysis (RDA). Analysis of the relationships with rattan harvesting proximity and forest designation zone used Multivariate Analyses of Covariance (MANCOVA). Tree species richness and diversity are primarily affected by slope gradient and altitude, while tree size is affected mainly by soil chemical factors. Only a small part of the variation in tree structure measures can be attributed to the impacts of rattan cane harvesting. Stronger adverse effects on understorey vegetation density, including tree saplings and seedlings, were found. This is thought to be a case of rattan harvesting exacerbating the effects of competition between rattan plants and other understorey vegetation. Longer term monitoring of forest characteristics could provide stronger understanding of the impacts. However, rattan harvesting appears to have little effect on forest structure and diversity in Lambusango Forest, suggesting that relatively small scale NTFP extraction does not necessarily conflict with forest conservation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Agave cupreata is harvested from tropical dry forests, oak forests, and other habitats by rural communities in the Chilapa region of Guerrero, Mexico to make mescal, a traditional and culturally important liquor. Local management systems use various techniques to regulate Agave harvest and encourage regeneration, including the exclusion of cattle. This study examines the impacts of cattle exclusion and of the different habitat types on the population structure and density of A. cupreata. Sampling was conducted in pastures, oak forest, tropical dry forest, and mixed oak-tropical dry forest using 54 transects of 1000m2, where Agave was counted by size-class and measurements were taken of the vegetation and physical environment. Transects were divided between areas with cattle present and cattle excluded in all four habitats except for oak forest, where all areas were open to cattle. Agave density per 1000m2 was highest in pasture (148±5, mean±SE), followed by oak forest (100±4), tropical dry forest (88±5) and mixed oak-dry forest (81±2). The size-class structures of Agave populations were also significantly different between vegetation types, with oak forest supporting higher seedling densities but lower numbers of juveniles. A regression subset selection algorithm showed that one of the most important factors influencing Agave populations was the presence of cattle, which can reduce densities by trampling and grazing on seedlings and floral stalks. Cattle presence significantly lowered Agave densities in the smaller size classes in all vegetation types but did not significantly alter size-class structure. Total Agave density per 1000m2 was significantly higher in transects where cattle were absent (148±4) than where cattle were present (81±1). In all areas sampled, the high number of juveniles relative to other size-classes suggests that Agave populations are successfully regenerating in the Chilapa region, and the higher Agave densities in fenced areas suggest that local management techniques are effectively increasing Agave yields. These results highlight the potential for sustainable management of Agave to conserve forest habitats while also providing important income from mescal to local communities in the region. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Baobab fruit are harvested and used throughout Africa as an important source of food and are sold to generate income. Commercial use is increasing rapidly as derivatives of the fruit such as baobab seed oil and fruit pulp are being exported to Europe and North America. The cash derived from the sale of fruit support thousands of rural people. This study examines baobab fruit yields in an area being harvested for commercial use. It represents baobab populations and harvesting scenarios typically found in Southern Africa and is the first study in Africa to combine demographic and production data in determining baobab fruit yields. Fruit production was examined across five land-use types (nature reserves, rocky outcrops, plains, fields and villages) and over three consecutive years. Factors assessed included differences in life-stage, tree size, land-use type, inter-annual variation and quantifiable fruit predation. Results showed that adult trees produced 8 times more fruit than sub-adult trees. Fruit production fluctuated between size-classes and exhibited weak linear and logarithmic trends between fruit production and dbh and crown volume, respectively. There was high variation between trees with 41% of adult trees consistently producing <5 fruit per year, which we classed as ‘poor-producers’. Different land uses showed no significant differences in fruit production per tree, but where baboons were present, in nature reserves and rocky outcrops, predation of immature fruit resulted in up to 85% fruit loss. Villages and fields had the highest tree density and yielded the most fruit/ha. Inter-annual variation was significant with a two and a half fold difference between the highest and lowest year. The results of this study are important for economic planning and management and are key to determining sustainable harvesting levels of baobab fruit in Southern Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Developing sustainable extractive industries in otherwise intact tropical forest regions requires a sound understanding of the production potential of key resource populations. The oleoresin extracted from Copaifera trees is an economically important non-timber forest product harvested throughout the lowland Amazon basin. We studied oleoresin extraction from four species of Copaifera trees with known harvest histories within two contiguous extractive reserves in western Brazilian Amazonia. We conducted a large-scale experimental harvest of 179 previously unharvested Copaifera trees, in both seasonally flooded (várzea) and adjacent unflooded (terra firme) forests. The likelihood of trees yielding any oleoresin was principally determined by their species identity: C. multijuga was the only species to regularly yield oleoresin (70% of trees). Yield volumes varied both amongst species and forest types: C. multijuga (restricted to terra firme forest) had the highest mean yield of 505ml, whilst C. guyanensis produced higher volumes of oleoresin in várzea (139ml) than terra firme (15ml) forest. Intraspecific differences were driven mainly by tree size. To assess extraction sustainability, we reharvested a sample of C. multijuga trees and compared the oleoresin production of 24 conspecific trees that had been initially harvested one year previously with that of 17 trees initially harvested three years previously. Reharvested trees produced just 35% of the oleoresin volume compared to that when originally drilled, but this response was not affected by the time interval between consecutive harvests. We demonstrate that, within a population of Copaifera, both morphological and environmental factors restrict total productivity; consideration of these factors should inform sustainable management practises. We additionally raise methodological considerations that may improve the comparability of studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) strongly contribute to livelihood security in the semi-arid tropics. There is increasing concern about the population status of NTFP-providing trees and therefore a need for their sustainable use. Thus, this study examines the impact of land-use type on the multipurpose baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) in Burkina Faso, combined with rates and patterns of bark- and leaf-harvesting, and their impact on fruit production. We compared stands in a protected area (W National Park of Burkina Faso) with those of surrounding communal area (fallows, croplands and villages) to obtain an indication on the status of the baobab population, to assess its harvesting tolerance and to estimate to what extent their actual use is sustainable. Our results reveal that land-use type has an impact on the population structure of the baobab. The size class distribution curve of park stands was inverse J-shape which indicates good rejuvenation, while the curve of fallows, croplands and villages stands was bell-shaped, indicating a lack of recruitment. However, a high number of seedlings were recorded in villages. Nearly all baobabs were pruned and debarked in villages, croplands and fallows while half of the individuals were harvested in the park. Most of the trees were pruned and debarked moderately. Debarking and pruning were slightly size specific. Pruning in interaction with tree-size had a significant impact on fruit production. In contrast, debarking had no effect on fruit production. We conclude that despite the land-use impact and the intense harvesting, baobabs are still well preserved in the communal area due to their longevity, extremely low adult mortality rates and traditional management practices. However, land-use intensifications may lead to increasing pressure on baobab populations in the future. Therefore, adapted management strategies are needed to guarantee the persistence of this important species and to avoid a shortage of baobab products. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Bark is a greatly coveted non-timber forest product (NTFP). Its overexploitation from medicinal tree species threatens an essential source of medication for rural populations. Despite the relevance of bark, not much information is available on the ecological impact of bark harvesting. In Benin, West Africa, we investigated how various harvesting techniques affect the bark re-growth of 12 tree species and the survival of debarked trees. Trees were debarked following a combination of three factors: (i) season of bark harvesting (dry or rainy season), (ii) size class of the tree (three stem diameter classes) and (iii) intensity of debarking (seven different percentages of trunk circumference debarked). Measurements of edge growth and survival were taken every 6months during 2years. Ring-barking (100% of trunk circumference debarked) did not allow the sustainable exploitation of any species, while all trees with 75% of debarked circumference remained alive and produced edge growth. Whatever the bark harvesting technique, 5 out of the 12 species had a bark recovery rate below 1cm/year, rendering the wound closure very unlikely. On the other hand, five species showed good to very good bark recovery rates (>7cm/year) and for these species the combination of debarking factors (season, dbh and intensity) allowing the highest edge growth was determined. This experimental bark stripping revealed the complexities involved in decision-making for sustainable tree management. Studying the patterns of bark recovery rates provides a relevant tool to assess for each species the delay for achieving closure of a specific wound area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Frost resistance and subzero temperature effects on photosynthesis, survival and distribution were studied in Euterpe edulis, a tree palm species of the Atlantic Forest, near the southern limit of the species distribution. E. edulis grows under the forest canopy and is absent from forest stands located near bottom valleys. This palm species has been commercially exploited for palm hearts, making it the most important non-timber forest species in North-Eastern Argentina. Its distribution was studied in relation to the frequency and intensity of subzero temperatures along a topographic gradient. E. edulis abundance was higher at the highest site and decreased or became absent towards the lowest site. Subzero temperatures during each of three winter seasons were observed in the lowest site. The medium and high elevation sites never experienced absolute minimum temperatures below 0°C. Forest structure, fraction of solar radiation transmitted through the canopy and soil water potentials did not change substantially along the gradient. After a low temperature period in winter, the maximum quantum yield in E. edulis leaflets was relatively low in individuals at the low elevation site while having normal values at the medium and high elevation sites. Thermal analysis indicated that E. edulis saplings can supercool down to about −10°C and do not tolerate extracellular ice formation. Ice formation was observed at about −4°C, relatively close to the equilibrium freezing temperature, only after an increase in ambient humidity resulted in dew formation on the plant surface. Dew formation is commonly observed in valleys during the winter season. This observation gives further support to the hypothesis that strong infrequent frost events could be an important environmental factor determining the spatial distribution pattern of E. edulis in the Atlantic Forest of Argentina. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: There is growing research interest in the ethnobiology, socio-economics and management of mangrove forests. Coastal residents who use mangroves and their resources may have considerable botanical and ecological knowledgeable about these forests. A wide variety of forest products are harvested in mangroves, especially wood for fuel and construction, tannins and medicines. Although there are exceptions, mangrove forest products are typically harvested in a small-scale and selective manner, with harvesting efforts and impacts concentrated in stands that are closer to settlements and easiest to access (by land or by sea). Mangroves support diverse, local fisheries, and also provide critical nursery habitat and marine productivity which support wider commercial fisheries. These forests also provide valuable ecosystem services that benefit coastal communities, including coastal land stabilization and storm protection. The overlapping of marine and terrestrial resources in mangroves creates tenure ambiguities that complicate management and may induce conflict between competing interests. Mangroves have been cut and cleared extensively to make way for brackish water aquaculture and infrastructure development. More attention is now given to managing remaining forests sustainably and to restoring those degraded from past use. Recent advances in remotely sensed, geo-spatial monitoring provide opportunities for researchers and planners to better understand and improve the management of these unique forested wetlands. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), has emerged as the cornerstone of the extractive economy in much of the Amazon, but the debate continues as to whether or not current harvest levels have a detrimental effect on Brazil nut seedling recruitment. While regeneration studies to date have been conducted solely within mature forest, our study provides further insight into current Brazil nut regeneration dynamics, with a unique first look at regeneration in swidden fallows within two multiple-use areas in Acre, Brazil. Recruitment of individuals ≤10cm diameter at breast height (dbh) was evaluated within three 9ha mature forest plots and six fallows of 0.5–1.0ha each. Higher mean densities of B. excelsa seedlings (individuals <1.5m in height) were observed in fallow than in mature forest (12.7 and 5.3individualsha−1, respectively). A generalized linear mixed model analysis revealed that in addition to forest type, proximity to seed sources also explained seedling densities. Height and diameter growth of young B. excelsa individuals was positively related to light availability. Photosynthetic photon flux density levels were over three times higher in fallows versus mature forest during peak sunlight hours. Results suggest that fallow environments may provide favorable conditions for B. excelsa regeneration. Not only can anthropogenic disturbance in the form of shifting cultivation play a positive role in B. excelsa regeneration, its historic presence on the landscape could explain current Brazil nut densities and distributions. Finally, swidden fallows could potentially be managed for enhanced Brazil nut densities, which may provide an opportunity for greater income for extractive families while contributing to the sustainability of Brazil nut extraction and forest conservation in the long term. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Lechuguilla (Agave lecheguilla) plants are amongst non-timber forest products that are an important source of income for the inhabitants of the arid and semiarid regions of Mexico. There are however, no management programs to promote and protect this resource. In the present study a reliable, non-destructive and easy-to-follow method to estimate yield of lechuguilla fiber in wild populations was developed. A table for estimation of dry fiber production per plant was generated selecting height of cogollo multiplied by its diameter as the independent variable, using a quadratic polynomial regression equation. Using this table in the field would allow a quick and reliable estimation of lechuguilla fiber yield in natural populations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) is a species used for basketmaking by several Native American Tribes in Eastern North America. In recent years, there has been a decline in availability of quality ‘basket trees’, and the purpose of this study was to determine what site characteristics allow for the growth of appropriate ring widths required for black ash splints used to make baskets. Three ecosystems – lowland wet forest (2 study sites), upland mesic forest (2 study sites) and a series of woodland ponds (4 study sites) – were studied on the Chippewa National Forest in northern Minnesota. At each study site 4–16 plots, each 5-m in radius, were centered on a subject black ash tree. On each plot basal area of all trees and environmental variables such as herbaceous vegetation, composition and structure were measured. On the lowland study sites, volume of soil in hummocks on which single trees grew was also measured. Regression was used to relate ring width to environmental variables. Tree DBH had a significant positive influence on ring width for upland and woodland pond sites (R 2 =51.0%, p <0.001; R 2 =42.0%, p =0.031, respectively). Percent cover of herbaceous vegetation showed a significant negative impact on 5-year ring growth on the lowland sites (R 2 =59.9%, p <0.001) but no significant trends for uplands or woodland ponds. Thus, it seems likely that these herbs, principally sedges, limit tree growth on lowland sites, where total soil volume available for roots is extremely limited by high water tables. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Sustainable harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and associated livelihood security can be affected by forest disturbances additional to harvesting. Amla (Phyllanthus emblica and Phyllanthus indofischeri) is a locally and nationally significant NTFP in India, exploited for its fruit. We examined the infection of these two species by a hemiparasitic mistletoe and investigated two alternative management approaches. Forest surveys, mistletoe removal experiments and seed deposition surveys were employed to assess the prevalence of mistletoe infection, characteristics of infection in relation to resource value and the appropriateness of local versus institutional management approaches. The results suggest mistletoe infection is widespread in the study site, affecting over half of the Amla population, and in particular those reproductive trees important for population persistence. Infection characteristics and resource values differ between the two Phyllanthus species, having significant implications for Amla collectors. Institutional perspectives on the management of this species conflict with local practice. Cutting of branches by collectors has previously been considered destructive, but may in fact have management benefits in terms of increased productivity through re-sprouts and reduced risk of mistletoe infection. However, neither mistletoe removal by hand, nor branch cutting appear to offer a viable control strategy in isolation. A multifarious strategy including new approaches to management is needed to safeguard the role of this resource in local livelihoods. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The emergence of Brazilian extractive reserves reinforced the notion that sustainable forest use could play a central role in conservation. Brazil nut is considered a model non-timber product for promoting conservation through use. Demographic studies, however, have demonstrated differential impacts of nut harvest on Brazil nut population structure. Comparing three populations with different forest use histories, degrees of road access, and recent levels of nut harvest, we asked: (1) Are they exhibiting regeneration failure? and (2) Are seedling/sapling densities explained by adult Brazil nut structure, fruit fate and/or overall forest structure? We installed four 9-ha plots in each site to census Brazil nut trees ⩾10cm dbh, and within each plot, 36 subplots (25×25m each) to quantify regeneration, overall forest structure, and open and closed fruit counts. Approximately 29–55% of fruits was unharvested, and more than 90% of these was opened by scatterhoarding dispersers. Population structure approximated a reverse-J size class distribution, with seedling densities varying from 3.2 to 5.8individualsha−1. We conclude that within the current harvest context, regeneration is sufficient for population persistence in our sites, at least over the medium term. The socioeconomics of sustainably managing Brazil nut is the greater challenge, involving interlinked competitive land uses, nut quality, and substantial increases in local income from harvest. Some of these challenges are being addressed in Brazil, Bolivia and Peru, providing hope that this cornerstone extractive species will continue to play a prominent role in the ecological and economic landscape of Amazonia. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Brazil nut is widely recognized as the cornerstone of the Amazonian extractive economy. Tight linkages between Brazil nut production, regional income, and intact mature forests have thrust this species into focus as a key component of Amazonian conservation and income generation strategies. Nonetheless, a comprehensive synthesis of factors explaining Brazil nut fruit production variation is lacking. We aimed to address this knowledge gap, asking: (1) What are the rates and annual variation of Bertholletia excelsa fruit production at individual and population levels? (2) What factors explain B. excelsa production variation, focusing on spatial and temporal variables, diameter at breast height (dbh), crown attributes, liana loads, and soil attributes? and (3) Does liana cutting affect fruit production? Our model explained 73% of the variability in fruit production by 140 trees over 5 years. Dbh alone explained >50%, and trees in the middle diameter range (100cm≤dbh<150cm) produced best. Top-producing trees were loosely grouped spatially. Cation exchange capacity and P also explained production variation. The liana load variable was only weakly significant for explaining production variation, and there were no direct significant effects of liana cutting. Cutting, however, did improve crown forms—another highly significant model variable. This, coupled with a weakly significant interaction of liana cutting by year, suggests that liana cutting could improve production over time. In any given year, approximately 25% of the trees produced 72% of the total population production. Annual variation of fruit production at the individual level was relatively high, and at the population level was extremely low, with annual production departing from average only in a year of delayed and reduced rainfall. These results coupled with low synchronicity of fruiting, confirm long-term observations of harvesters that Brazil nut populations exhibit relatively constant fruit production. Results suggest that fruit productivity at the individual tree level could be increased, possibly through experimental liana cutting and/or P amendments. At the population level, Brazil nut collectors could potentially increase efficiency by concentrating collection efforts on consistently high producers and possible production “hotspots”. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Carapa guianensis Aublet. is a tropical tree with strong multiple-use characteristics, and is valued for both the high quality oil extracted from its seeds and as a timber resource. This study compares the population structure of this economically important rainforest tree in two contrasting forest types: occasionally inundated and terra firme forests. Main study objectives were (a) to assess the density, spatial distribution, and size class structure of C. guianensis in these two forest types and (b) to use patterns of abundance, distribution and demographic structure to help infer key demographic stages or ecological variables that merit special focus for management. Four 400m×400m plots, two in each forest type, were established to determine distribution and density patterns of C. guianensis ≥10cm diameter at breast height (dbh) at the landscape level, and 32 10m×10m subplots were randomly nested within each of the larger plots to measure individuals <10cmdbh. Larger individuals (≥10cmdbh) were found at higher densities in occasionally inundated forest than in terra firme forest: 25.7treesha−1 and 14.6treesha−1, respectively. Mean density of C. guianensis individuals <10cm dbh was also higher in occasionally inundated forests, but variation of regeneration density among the subplots was high. Spatial distribution methods revealed a tendency toward clumping in both forest types, and both had similar size class structures, suggesting that both environments are suitable for C. guianensis. This new finding illustrates the potential for C. guianensis management in terra firme forests. High densities and clumped distributions in both forest types are also indices favorable for sustainable species management. Finally, several ecological variables (tree density and reproductive potential) were sufficiently different between terra firme and occasionally inundated forests to recommend stratification by forest type when conducting further studies on key ecological and management variables of C. guianensis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The harvesting of non-timber forest products has been proposed as an alternative to timber harvesting that can increase rural income while having a reduced impact on forest structure. However, surprisingly little is known about the biological consequences of harvesting these products. We conducted a 3-year experiment in which we simulated the stem harvesting of the Amazonian plant Ischnosiphon polyphyllus, which is used by traditional and indigenous populations in the Amazon for the construction of baskets, mats, and other handicrafts used in manioc cultivation. We found that plant mortality is limited in all except the most extreme harvesting treatments. However, we also found that plants recuperate extremely slowly from experimental harvesting. These results suggest that current harvesting strategies may not be conservative enough to ensure long-term population survival. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aerial roots from hemiepiphytic Heteropsis (Araceae) vines have long been used in Amazonia as a strong flexible material in construction and making handicrafts. Commercial demand for this product known in Brazil as “titica” has increased in recent decades for making wicker furniture. We conducted inventories, harvests and experimental root cutting in the Alto Rio Guama´ Indigenous Reserve in the eastern Brazilian Amazon to investigate several aspects of titica ecology, root biology, and harvest impact to estimate root harvest potential in a range of intact and disturbed forest areas.The average density of host trees with titica roots in relatively undisturbed upland “terra firme” plots with light to moderate forest use was 371 trees/ha with 115 of these having commercially harvestable roots. These areas had an average of 0.9 commercially harvestable roots and 2.4 non-harvestable roots per host tree generating a titica root density of 1332 roots/ha with 26% of these being commercially harvestable. Titica plants did not show a positive preference for particular types of host trees, but the number of titica roots per host tree did increase with host tree size. The vines were virtually absent from forest areas subject to periodic flooding, a common palm tree found near small streams, and on pioneer tree species in patches of secondary forest recovering from a fire that occurred almost 20 years ago.Experimental cutting of mature titica roots showed that harvesting can have a severe impact on root survival. In the two treatments, where at least half of mature titica roots per host tree were cut 4 m above the ground, an average of 63% cut roots died and only 16% showed some regrowth after 7 months. The roots that did start to grow back had an average of 1.7 new roots arising from them, but each cut root had only one commercial quality root to replace it. These commercial quality roots were growing at an average of 220 cm per host tree per year. The high mortality and slow regrowth following root harvest indicate that many decades will be needed in between intensive titica harvests in one area. Options for managing titica harvests include reducing the percentage of roots removed per plant, setting up blocks of forest that would be harvested in succession, and in some cases integrating titica harvests into long-term timber cutting cycles. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Annona crassiflora populations had low fit to the negative exponential distribution model even in preserved sites. • Structure of populations showed recruitment gaps, mainly of small size plants where vegetation thinning and cattle farming were practiced. • Recruitment gaps caused by land use and management may lead local populations to extinction. • Local extinction of Annona will impact availability of food and a source of income for small farmers. Land use changes affect the abundance of plants, and even when plants are spared in agroecosystems, they are further impacted by management practices. Knowing how populations are impacted and the factors affecting them in the landscape is a major challenge in ecosystems under intense land use conversion, an even more important task when the plant is important for livelihoods. To understand how anthropogenic and environmental factors affect plant abundance and the population structure of Annona crassiflora, an important wild fruit tree of Cerrado, we evaluated populations in a gradient of anthropogenic and environmental conditions. Our sampling ranged from well-preserved sites, in natural areas, to highly disturbed pastures in the agroecosystems, covering an extensive area of the Cerrado biome. Results indicate that vegetation thinning and the presence of cattle negatively affect the abundance of small plants. High frequency of thinning and large cattle herds prevent recruitment of small plants in pastures, which may drive populations to local extinction in these sites. Reducing the frequency and intensity of vegetation thinning and cattle herd size may allow the recruitment of small plants into higher life stages. Fruit harvesting, which is positively associated with plant abundance, can continue to be practiced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Twenty years after planting, Brazil nut tree diameter growth in secondary forests was 38%, 34%, and 24% higher than in canopy gaps, pastures, and agroforestry sites, respectively. • Survival rate was similar for trees planted in pastures and secondary forests, and 15–20% higher there than trees planted in agroforestry sites, and 7–12% higher than in canopy gaps. • Fruit production probability did not differ between restoration sites. • Secondary forests are the most suitable sites for planting Brazil nut trees, and smallholders' management has a substantial effect on establishment success. 1. Forest landscape restoration (FLR) has gained momentum globally and guidance is needed to identify those species, sites and planting methods that increase restoration success. Incorporating native Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP) species in FLR approaches provides an opportunity to simultaneously deliver ecological and economic benefits. The Brazil nut tree is one of the most valuable Amazonian NTFP species and could fulfil a cornerstone role in Amazon FLR. However, the factors defining establishment success within Brazil nut restoration activities remain unknown. 2. Here, we evaluate the effect of management practices, restoration site (pastures, agroforestry, secondary forest and canopy gaps in old growth forest) and environmental conditions on the establishment success (tree growth, survival and fruit production) of Brazil nut restoration projects implemented by smallholders in the Peruvian Amazon. We performed a field study at 25 restoration sites of 1–38 years in age, where we conducted measurements on 481 trees and interviewed 21 smallholders. We used mixed effect models to identify drivers of performance. 3. Twenty years after planting, diameter growth in secondary forests was 38%, 34%, and 24% higher than in canopy gaps, pastures, and agroforestry sites, respectively. Survival rate was similar for trees planted in pastures and secondary forests, but 15–20% higher there than trees planted in agroforestry sites, and 7–12% higher than in canopy gaps. Fruit production was 262% higher for reproductive trees in secondary forest sites compared to pastures, but production probability did not differ between restoration sites. These results show that secondary forests are the most suitable sites for planting Brazil nut trees. 4. In addition to restoration site effects, we also found significant effects of management practices. Survival rate increased with application of fire for clearing and weeding and economic investments and decreased with potentially inefficient herbivore protection. Fruit production was lower for trees planted further away from smallholders' homes. These results show that smallholders' management has a substantial effect on establishment success. 5. Our findings suggest a significant importance of post-planting maintenance of trees to increase success of FLR projects. Further, our study shows that evaluation of past restoration activities can guide future forest restoration in tropical landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Although extraction is recognized as a threat for orchids, its effects are unknown. • Extraction increases the abundance of old plants but diminishes that of the young. • Plant sections extraction diminishes the biomass of the plants and their flowering. • Fallow periods are required in populations under extraction. Chronic anthropogenic disturbance caused by the extraction of plant sections or entire individuals from wild populations can modify the population structure of the plants. Population structure, plant biomass capital and reproductive probability were compared in five Laelia autumnalis populations under different extraction intensities. For each plant, the number of pseudobulbs was counted and the biomass of each pseudobulb estimated and its live/dead status recorded along with the presence of inflorescence remnants. The live biomass of each plant was related to its total number of pseudobulbs. In populations under greater levels of extraction, the plants accumulate less biomass as they become larger. In populations under lower extraction, there was a greater abundance of small plants (1–9 and 10–18 pseudobulbs). In contrast, populations under higher extraction presented a structure with a greater abundance of large individuals (>19 pseudobulbs). In all populations, the frequency of the remains of inflorescences increases with plant size. In contrast, the development of inflorescences in the study season decreased as the intensity of extraction increased. In conclusion, extraction of Laelia autumnalis plants causes them to accumulate less biomass and become less likely to develop inflorescences as they age, and ultimately modifies their population structure toward an abundance of large, old plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Results suggest a high resin tapping potential of Atlantic maritime pine forests. • Tree age strongly influences resin yield. Only stands older than 30 yrs should be tapped. • Under Oceanic conditions resin tapping should be a seasonal activity. • Frequency of grooves could be higher than previously thought. • Microtapping emerges as a reliable tool to predict resin yield potential. Pine resin is a highly valuable and sought-after non-timber forest product with multiple uses in many industrial sectors. Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) is the main tapped species in Europe, where resin tapping activities are concentrated in only a few specific Mediterranean regions. Although maritime pine also occupies vast extensions under Atlantic climates, the resin tapping potential of these forests remains unexplored. The objectives of this study were to determine the main factors driving resin yield under Atlantic conditions and to adapt extraction practices to these regions. Resin yield was assessed in two naturally regenerated maritime pine forests in NW Spain. The effects of tree age, inter-tree competition, dendrometry, seasonality and wounding time on resin production were tested. The feasibility of a simple and rapid microtapping procedure to predict resin yield was also assessed. Tree age was identified as the main factor driving resin production, which increased considerably with tree age. Tree slenderness, tree size and inter-tree competition also significantly influenced resin production, although the effects were lower and likely mediated by age variation. Resin yield followed marked seasonal patterns, with maximum production in late summer and minimum production in winter. Resin flow decreased rapidly with time after wounding. More than 95 % of resin yield flowed in the first week after trees were wounded. The proposed microtapping procedure, which estimates resin flow from small wounds in just a few days, was shown to be a useful and reliable tool both for phenotyping and to predict resin yield in new stands. The results confirm the high potential for resin tapping in Atlantic maritime pine forests, although tapping should be restricted to stands older than 30 years and a season should be delimited for this activity in the region studied. Additionally, the periodicity of grooves (typically fortnightly) may need to be increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Maritime pine populations differed in their potential to produce resin. • Populations from harsher environments produced more resin. • Resin flow was positively related with tree growth at the phenotypic level, but. • Resin flow and growth were negatively correlated at the population level. • Resin flow increased with preceding high temperatures and water deficit. Pine trees produce large amounts of oleoresin to defend against biotic threats. Resin is highly costly to produce and investment in its production must be accurately optimized in relation to allocation to other life functions such growth. As a result of these costs, resin production is highly variable both genetically (among and within species) and plastically (across temporal and spatial environmental heterogeneity). The relative contribution of these sources of variation is, however, far from being completely understood. Besides being a main defensive mechanism, pine resin is also a valuable non-timber forest product that is regaining attention as a renewable resource for different industrial sectors. Improving our knowledge on the main drivers of resin production is vital to fine-tune resin-tapping management, especially in regions with little tradition in resin-tapping such are the Atlantic areas of the Iberian Peninsula. Here, we assessed resin flow and growth in a network of seven Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) provenance tests established in North West Spain to explore the within species variation in resin flow, the plasticity of resin flow across sites and across the season and the (phenotypic and genotypic) relationships between resin flow and tree growth. Resin flow was assessed in three contrasting Maritime pine populations at three times within the season using a micro-tapping procedure that predicts well the resin yield potential for exploitation purposes. Results supported the theoretical predictions as resin flow significantly varied among populations, with populations from more favorable environmental conditions producing less resin than those from harsher conditions. Resin flow was positively correlated with tree size at the phenotypic level. However, the genetically-based relationship between growth potential and resin flow was markedly negative. Fast growing populations produced less resin than slow growing origins. Resin flow was also highly plastic across sites and across seasons, with resin flow consistently increasing towards the end of the growing season. Temperature and water deficit immediately before sampling emerged as main drivers of the observed variation in resin flow across sites and seasons. Results are valuable to understand the extremely large variation in defensive investment on resin-based defenses in conifer species, to model the potential of Atlantic Maritime pine forest for resin tapping, and to fine-tune the resin-tapping management of these forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Organic consumers attach different characteristics to wild versus cultivated foods. • Organic consumers are unaware of the market relevance of wild plant foods. • Labelling of wild ingredients is needed to raise awareness of wild plant foods. • Organic consumers barely differentiate between organic and non-organic wild food. • Better consumer information is needed about added value of organic certification. Organically-certified wild plant foods are rarely addressed in scientific or public discourses on organic food even though 30% of the world's organically-certified land is dedicated to wild plant gathering. This oversight may leave organic consumers unaware of the market relevance of wild plant foods. The aim of this study was therefore to understand organic consumers' attitudes, knowledge and purchasing and gathering practices with respect to wild plant foods, and how sociodemographic variables and attitudes can predict knowledge and practices. A purposive sample was drawn from 22 urban and rural food markets across Austria and 497 organic consumers were interviewed using successive freelists and four-point Likert scale questions on attitudes. Data were analysed using exploratory factor analysis and multiple linear regressions. Organic consumers knew a median of nine wild food plants, and reported five as being gathered and one as being purchased. They valued food quality and the responsible harvest of wild food plants, but assigned them a low economic relevance, with some respondents sceptical about their suitability as food. Rural residence, a higher share of organic consumption and a greater emphasis on responsible harvesting predicted knowledge and gathering of a larger number of plant species. These results confirm that organic consumers know, gather and have positive attitudes with respect to wild plant foods, although they are hardly aware about their market relevance. We argue that consumers need to be better informed about the wild origin of food ingredients and the added value of organic certification of wild plant foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compatibility of different commercial uses of a montane tropical oak-bamboo forest in Costa Rica was assessed for selective logging and harvesting of non-vascular pendant epiphytes, a locally valuable non-timber forest product (NTFP). The non-vascular pendant epiphyte taxa examined were mosses (Pilotrichella flexilis, Phyllogonium viscosum, Zelometeorium sp., Squamidium leucotrichum); liverworts (Frullania convoluta and Frullania spp.); and lichens (Usnea spp.). All of these species have pendant life-forms, and apparently play key roles in waterinterception, thereby influencing the hydrological balance in tropical montane ecosystems. Since the growth of pendant non-vascular epiphytes conversely depends on fog and mist, these species could be used as indicators of health of the tropical montane forests where they abound. Nine years after careful selective logging, no negative impactswere detected on the biomass of these NTFPs at the heights at which they are commercially harvested (1-3m). This result was established through comparisons of logged and non-logged plots on the basis of abundance (biomass) of the commercial bryophytes and related variables such as substrate length availability and substrate type (shade tolerant, pioneer species, or bamboo, and substrate diameter). Pendant epiphytes were most abundant on thin substrates (branches <1cm in diameter); the highest biomass values per unit substrate length were found on branches of shade-tolerant species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]