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Abstract: Road transportation is a strongly growing source of CO2, and use of biofuels represents one option to reduce end-of-pipe emissions of the existing car fleet. In this contribution, the implementation of the EU Biofuels Directive (2003/30/EC) and related voluntary measures at the local level are examined in Germany, UK, Italy and Finland and the cities of Berlin, London, Milan and Helsinki. Even though they are not directly involved in the implementation of the biofuel directive, all four cities studied have played an important role in emissions reduction by voluntarily participating in research and demonstration projects and by using biofuels in their own fleet. An analysis of the numerous causes and driving forces leading to different local level measures is provided. The environmental sensitivity, usually examined at national level, and the national level implementation of the EU Biofuels Directive (2003/30/EC) were not directly correlated with the city-level activities Instead, support from local businesses and acquisition of EU funds were considered to be valid explanatory factors for the city-level activities. In addition, through horizontal networking cities are starting to exchange know-how gained in their projects, contributing in this way to the accumulation of experience for future policies and technologies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Mitigation of climate change requires action at all the different levels, from the international to the national and the local levels. This contribution presents a case study of the city of Helsinki in Finland. An ex-post approach is used to follow the implementation of the EU directives to the national and further to the city level and to identify the relevant voluntary action taken in the city. We find that the coherence of national and city level policies is the highest in regulated areas, such as waste management and building regulation. Voluntary action is easily taken at local level in areas where co-benefits can be expected: e.g. energy conservation and biofuels for transportation. These voluntary actions can show the feasibility of certain measures which can later on be implemented at national or supranational level. We observe a clear contradiction between the EU and national renewable electricity targets and the nonaction at the city level: local conditions and private interests pose barriers to the implementation of a climate policy. We conclude that the coherence between policies at different levels develops over time and international requirements as well as local conditions can be drivers for it. Cities in particular play a role in mitigating climate change through removing barriers for the implementation of national and EU policies, and through moving forward with and promoting innovative voluntary measures, e.g. through international city networks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Empetrum nigrum L. (crowberry) is one of the plants surviving near the Cu/Ni smelters in Finland and Russia. According to field observations, the fine roots of E. nigrum are situated below 40 cm depth and the root biomass is reduced in the polluted sites. This could cause a reduced root uptake of macronutrients and trace elements in the fieldand, therefore, the possible element uptake by aboveground parts of E. nigrum was studied in a greenhouse. Six different treatment solutions containing various heavy metal and macronutrient concentrations were applied to the stems and leaves of E. nigrum and the chemical composition and ecophysiological parameters were measured. Heavy metal concentrations in the leaves and stem bark, and Cu concentrations in the stems, increased with increasing metal concentrations in the spraying solutions. The bark and leaves had higher heavy metal concentrations than the stems of comparable age classes. The macronutrient and Mn concentrations in E. nigrum did not change significantly with increasing element concentrations in the spraying solution. Neither the stem water potential nor the leaf chlorophyll concentrations showed anyclear response to element applications. Therefore, the element uptake by aboveground parts of E. nigrum was not confirmed by this study. However, there was a tendency to a decrease in CO2 exchange rate and increase in foliar abscisic acid content in plants treatedwith the highest element concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlorophyll, organic (citric and malic acids) and abscisic acid (ABA) contents and stem water potential were measured to indicate possible physiological effects of heavy metal deposition on Empetrum nigrum L. (crowberry). The leaves and stems of E. nigrum were collected at distances of 0.5 and 8 km from the Cu/Ni smelter at Harjavalta, south-west Finland. All the investigated parameters were clearly affected by heavy metal emissions. Chlorophyll contents in the leaves and organic acid contents in the leaves and stems were lower close to the emission source. Generally found increase in organic acid contents with increasing Ni concentrations was not found, which might be due to the lower production of organic acids measured by decreased photosynthesis near the smelter. In contrast, ABA contents in stems and leaves in general, were higher in plants growing 0.5 km from the pollution source. Close to the smelter the stem water potential of E. nigrum was less negative during the day but more negative during the night. These results suggest that smelter emissions have a negative effect on the ecophysiology of E. nigrum even though it is considered to be a tolerant species to heavy metals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cu and Ni tolerance of 3- to 5-year-old cuttings of crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) were tested in controlled conditions. Six levels of Cu (0.1/100 mg l-1), five levels of Ni (0/100 mg l-1) and nine levels of Cu+Ni were applied. The elongation of the shoots, new shoot and root dry weights indicated an adverse effect of increasing Cu and Ni concentrations. At low Cu levels the addition of Ni decreased the dry weights more than at high Cu levels. The resultsshow that E. nigrum accumulated high concentrations of Cu and Ni mainly in old stem tissue, which contained a maximum of over 3000 mg kg-1 Cu and 1000 mg kg-1 Ni. The concentrations ofCu and Ni in E. nigrum were higher than those measured in plants growing in areas near to Cu/Ni smelters, but the accumulation pattern was similar. The survival of the cuttings was not affected suggesting that E. nigrum possesses an internal heavy metal tolerance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The copper (Cu) resistance of 1-year-old seedlings of heather (Calluna vulgaris) was tested in a greenhouse experiment. The plant material originated from seeds collected from three peatland sites located 1.2 km to the NW, and 2.5 and 5.5 km to the NE of the Harjavalta Cu/nickel (Ni) smelter, SW Finland. The plants were watered with a nutrient solution containing five different levels of Cu (1, 10, 22, 46 and 100 mg l-1). Cu clearly decreased the length growth of shoots, shoot and root biomass of C. vulgaris. More than 50% of the seedlings exposed to the highest Cu treatment died. C. vulgaris accumulated high amounts of Cu, the living old roots containing a maximum of 2200 mg kg-1 Cu and the living stems 1300 mg kg-1 Cu. Discolouring leaves contained higher Cu concentrations than green leaves. The results indicate Cu accumulation in roots and root-to-shoot transport. Some differences were found between the responses ofthe three seed provenances, but none of the populations proved to bemore resistant to Cu than the others in all the measured responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]