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Amphibian populations are globally declining at an alarming rate, and infectious diseases are among the main causes of their decline. Two micro-parasites, the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and the virus Ranavirus (RV) have caused mass mortality of amphibians and population declines. Other, less understood epizootics are caused by macro-parasites, such as Trombiculoidea chiggers. Infection with chiggers can affect frog behavior and survival. Furthermore, synergistic effects of co-infection with both macro and micro-parasites may lead to higher morbidity. To better understand these potential synergies, we investigated the presence and co-infection by chiggers, Bd and RV in the endemic frog Tlalocohyla smithii (T. smithii). Co-infection of Bd, RV, and/or chiggers is expected in habitats that are suitable for their co-occurrence; and if infection with one parasite facilitates infection with the others. On the other hand, co-infection could decrease if these parasites were to differ in their micro-environmental requirements (i.e. niche apportionment). A total of 116 frogs of T. smithii were studied during 2014 and 2016 in three streams within the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve in Jalisco, Mexico. Our results show that 31% of the frogs were infected with Trombiculoidea chiggers (Hannemania sp. and Eutrombicula alfreddugesi); Hannemania prevalence increased with air temperature and decreased in sites with high canopies and with water pH values above 8.5 and below 6.7. Bd prevalence was 2.6%, RV prevalence was 0%, and none of the frogs infected with chiggers were co-infected with Bd. Together, this study suggests that chiggers do not facilitate infection with Bd, as these are apportioned in different micro-habitats. Nevertheless, the statistical power to assure this is low. We recommend further epidemiological monitoring of multiple parasites in different geographical locations in order to provide insight on the true hazards, risks and conservation options for amphibian populations. Image 1 • This is the first report of Hannemania sp. and Eutrombicula alfreddugesi chiggers in Tlalocohyla smithii. • 31% of the frogs (Tlalocohyla smithii) were infected with Hannemania sp. and Eutrombicula alfreddugesi. • Hannemania prevalence rose with air temperature and fell at sites with high canopies and water pH over 8.5 and below 6.7. • Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis prevalence was 2.6% and Ranavirus prevalence was 0%. • None of the frogs infected with chiggers were coinfected with Bd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We analysed the secular trends in health-related physical fitness in Spanish adolescents between 2001–2002 and 2006–2007. Two representative population studies were conducted 5 years apart in adolescents (12.5–17.5 years) from Zaragoza (Spain) that participated in the AVENA study in 2001–2002 and in the HELENA-CSS study in 2006–2007. Both studies used the same tests to assess physical fitness: the handgrip strength, bent arm hang, standing broad jump, 4×10m shuttle run and 20m shuttle run tests. Performance in 4×10m shuttle run and 20m shuttle run tests was higher in 2006–2007 (Cohen''s d ranging from 0.2 to 0.4, p <0.05), whereas performance in handgrip strength and standing broad jump tests was lower in 2006–2007 (Cohen''s d ranging from 0.3 to 1.1, p <0.001). Adjustment for age, pubertal status, fat mass, fat free mass and parental education did not alter the results. The odds ratio (OR) of meeting the FITNESSGRAM Standards for healthy cardiorespiratory fitness was higher in 2006–2007 in both boys (OR, 95% CI: 2.123, 1.157–3.908) and girls (OR, 95% CI: 2.420, 1.377–4.255). The results indicate that levels of both speed/agility and cardiorespiratory fitness were higher in 2006–2007 than in 2001–2002, whereas muscular strength components were lower in 2006–2007. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]