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Renewable energy projects, such as wind farms and hydropower dams, can indirectly benefit biodiversity by mitigating climate change. However, we explain why such indirect benefits should not contribute towards the accounting of project-level net biodiversity outcomes and provide guidance on the steps needed to legitimately claim no-net-loss of biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Forest restoration and compensation are needed to reach the target of native vegetation cover in private lands. • Requiring ecological equivalence can restrict compensation options, but it is a feasible option in Brazilian rural lands. • Forest restoration on low productive pasture increases the ability to achieve the private conservation target. • A combination of on-site restoration and off-site compensation allows to achieve the conservation target in Brazil. Environmental policies that require native vegetation conservation can be challenging to implement, especially in productive agricultural landscapes. In Brazil, the Brazilian Native Vegetation Protection Law mandates 'Legal Reserves', protected native vegetation that landowners must retain on their properties. If landowners do not have the required minimum amount of native vegetation on their properties (the Legal Reserve 'target'), they must either restore vegetation on the same property to meet the target, or compensate by protecting existing vegetation or restoring it on another property, ideally in ecologically equivalent areas. Here, we evaluate how different strategies (on-site/off-site protection and/or restoration), and different requirements for ecological equivalence when off-site strategies are used, affect the ability to achieve Legal Reserve targets, while minimising the need to restore native vegetation on productive farmland. We used a novel iterative tool to build scenarios that reflect different combinations of strategies to meet the minimum conservation target under different requirements for ecological equivalence, and compared their ability to achieve the target and their likely cost. The Atlantic Forest was the only biome where it was not possible to achieve the Legal Reserve target by protection of existing native vegetation, even when ecological equivalence rules were relaxed. As a consequence, vegetation restoration is required in this biome. Directing this required restoration to pasturelands that are less-suitable for agriculture allowed the target to be achieved in all states of Brazil, as long as only minimal ecological equivalence was required; however, for most states, the need to restore native vegetation on productive areas on farmlands could still be avoided while requiring medium to high ecological equivalence. These findings show the potential for moderate ecological equivalence to be achieved across most of Brazil in a cost-effective way and without impairing productive lands when seeking to meet the Legal Reserve targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity offsetting is widely used to offset negative impacts of development on biodiversity. However, offsets can affect the distribution of benefits among beneficiaries, due to the redistribution of ecosystem services caused by impacts and offsets. Here, we compared the distribution of fishery economic benefits and losses to commercial and recreational fishers under two different offset policy rules: offset locations in close proximity to impact sites, and spatially unrestricted offsetting. With a focus on mangrove and seagrass ecosystems in Queensland, Australia, we measured how the distribution of net outcomes would change using the Gini coefficient. Different offset policy rules had similar effects on the redistribution of fishery benefits among commercial and recreational fishers. However, both offset policy rules failed to fully compensate for losses of fishery benefits for most affected beneficiaries. Locating offsets in close proximity to impact sites achieved slightly more evenly-distributed benefits among recreational fishers and among most types of commercial fishers. The findings suggest that in this system, even though the distribution of net outcomes of impact-offset projects for fishers are somewhat evenly distributed, they tend to be uniformly negative for both recreational and commercial fishers. • Fish habitat offsets in Queensland fails to fully offset losses of fishery benefits for all affected fishery beneficiaries. • Different offset policy rules had similar effects on the redistribution of ecosystem services among beneficiaries. • Offsets generating more even distribution of benefits among beneficiaries may yield smaller ecological gains than losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Environmental regulation failed to prevent habitat loss for an endangered species. • Some habitat loss also occurred without government oversight. • Regulatory processes approved over 400 developments without any conditions. Abstract Australia's high species extinction rate shows no sign of abating, with at least three vertebrate extinctions recorded within the last decade. In each case, scientists have published 'post-mortems' examining the context of these recent extinctions. By tracing the decline of a once-widespread and common bird to the point that it has disappeared from over 80% of its original range, and describing the circumstances under which habitat loss continues to be approved despite its formal protection, we present a 'pre-mortem' for the endangered, and endemic, southern black-throated finch (Poephila cincta cincta). The southern black-throated finch has suffered extensive habitat loss historically, much of which was unregulated. In 2000, Australia increased environmental regulation, and the southern black-throated finch was listed under the Commonwealth's Environment Protection & Biodiversity Conservation Act. Despite the increased environmental regulation and formal protection, habitat loss for the southern black-throated finch has continued, mostly incrementally but resulting in large cumulative loss. In the face of steep population decline and range contraction of BTF, five large coal mines were approved between 2012 and 2015 by both State and Commonwealth governments that will remove most of the largest area of high quality habitat that remains. We outline the policy settings under which the decline occurred, with a particular focus on recent ongoing habitat loss occurring within a highly regulated environment. We show that despite Australia's comparatively strong governance and regulatory frameworks, legally permitted habitat loss continues even for imperilled taxa formally listed under State and Commonwealth environment protection laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We assessed the potential for restoration to offset oil-palm impacts on carbon and biodiversity in Kalimantan, Indonesia. • Restoring degraded deep peatlands is an opportunity to offset carbon emissions from oil-palm plantations. • The costs of restoration to offset biodiversity loss are extremely high, suggesting that full compensation is impossible. • Reconciling multiple impacts at a landscape scale will necessitate tough choices on what to offset. • The high costs of offsetting clarify the fundamental role of conserving primary forests and peatlands in the tropics. Abstract When development impacts a broad landscape and causes the loss of multiple ecosystem services, decisions about which of these impacts to offset must be made. We use industrial oil-palm developments in Kalimantan and quantify the potential for restoration to offset oil-palm impacts on carbon storage and biodiversity. We developed a unique backcasting approach combined with a spatial conservation prioritisation framework to identify priority areas for restoration offsetting. We calculated the past impacts of oil-palm development, quantified the future benefits of restoration for carbon storage and biodiversity over one oil-palm planting cycle of 25 years, and prioritised areas for restoration to balance the impacts and benefits for the least cost. We estimate that offsetting the carbon emissions attributable to the existing 4.6 Mha of industrial oil-palm plantation in Kalimantan is most cost-effectively achieved by restoring 0.4–1.6 Mha of degraded peatlands, including failed agricultural projects, at a cost of US$0.7–2.9 billion. On the other hand, offsetting biodiversity losses would require at least 4.7 Mha of degraded areas to be restored (equating to 8.7% of Kalimantan) at a cost of US$7.7 billion. We show that priority areas for offsetting biodiversity losses overlap poorly with those for compensating carbon emissions. Our analysis suggests that reconciling multiple impacts at landscape scales will necessitate difficult choices among contested socio-political preferences. Our findings also clarify the fundamental importance of conserving biodiversity-rich primary forests and peatlands in the tropics and the need to avoid converting these areas in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The health and productivity of global land resources are declining, while demand for those resources is increasing. The aim of land degradation neutrality (LDN) is to maintain or enhance land-based natural capital and its associated ecosystem services. The Scientific Conceptual Framework for Land Degradation Neutrality has been developed to provide a scientific approach to planning, implementing and monitoring LDN. The Science-Policy Interface of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) led the development of the conceptual framework, drawing in expertise from a diverse range of disciplines. The LDN conceptual framework focuses on the supporting processes required to deliver LDN, including biophysical and socio-economic aspects, and their interactions. Neutrality implies no net loss of the land-based natural capital relative to a reference state, or baseline. Planning for neutrality involves projecting the likely cumulative impacts of land use and land management decisions, then counterbalancing anticipated losses with measures to achieve equivalent gains. Counterbalancing should occur only within individual land types, distinguished by land potential , to ensure “like for like” exchanges. Actions to achieve LDN include sustainable land management (SLM) practices that avoid or reduce degradation, coupled with efforts to reverse degradation through restoration or rehabilitation of degraded land. The response hierarchy of Avoid > Reduce > Reverse land degradation articulates the priorities in planning LDN interventions. The implementation of LDN is managed at the landscape level through integrated land use planning, while achievement is assessed at national level. Monitoring LDN status involves quantifying the balance between the area of gains (significant positive changes in LDN indicators) and area of losses (significant negative changes in LDN indicators), within each land type across the landscape. The LDN indicators (and associated metrics) are land cover (physical land cover class), land productivity (net primary productivity, NPP) and carbon stocks (soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks). The LDN conceptual framework comprises five modules: A: Vision of LDN describes the intended outcome of LDN; B: Frame of Reference clarifies the LDN baseline; C: Mechanism for Neutrality explains the counterbalancing mechanism; D: Achieving Neutrality presents the theory of change (logic model) articulating the impact pathway; and E: Monitoring Neutrality presents the LDN indicators. Principles that govern application of the framework provide flexibility while reducing risk of unintended outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To improve the present system of peer review of scientific papers, editors and publishers need to know: Who are the reviewers? How frequently do they decline or accept and complete their reviews? And what factors affect their willingness to accept reviews? We analyzed the peer review process for 1590 manuscripts submitted to the journal Biological Conservation during the period 2014–2015. Overall, 11,840 review invitations were sent to 6555 different reviewers. 60% of invited reviewers were from four large English-speaking countries—United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada—while only 1% or fewer of invited reviewers were from certain populous countries such as India and China. Considering only the first round of reviews, we found that, on average, editors invited 6.7 reviewers per manuscript, and reviewers accepted 37% of invitations. Reviewer gender, seniority, and academic productivity had no effect on acceptance rate. Reviewers from China accepted a higher proportion of invitations than did reviewers from any other country. Individuals who had accepted an invitation were more likely to accept a second invitation for a different manuscript, and reviewers who were fast with one review tended to be fast with the review of the next manuscript. Over 90% of reviewers completed their reviews, and most reviews were submitted on time. Editors should consider expanding the diversity of reviewers they invite, and particularly invite more scientists from under-represented countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How can we tell if the ecosystem services upon which we rely are at risk of being lost, potentially permanently? Ecosystem services underpin human well-being, but we lack a consistent approach for categorizing the extent to which they are threatened. We present an assessment framework for assessing the degree to which the adequate and sustainable provision of a given ecosystem service is threatened. Our framework combines information on the states and trends of both ecosystem service supply and demand, with reference to two critical thresholds: demand exceeding supply and ecosystem service ‘extinction’. This framework can provide a basis for global, national, and regional assessments of threat to ecosystem services, and accompany existing assessments of threat to species and ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Restoration activities are limited by funding and logistics. To optimise restoration efforts, we need to evaluate the effects of management actions on wildlife populations. In general, site-scale habitat quality has a stronger influence on habitat use by fauna than the landscape context. However, this is yet to be empirically tested for reptiles. In this study, we used model averaging and hierarchical partitioning to compare the relative importance of site-scale habitat quality and landscape context for reptile communities and species in a regenerating woodland landscape in semi-arid Queensland, Australia. Reptiles were surveyed at 55 sites. Habitat quality was assessed using relevant variables based on published habitat-associations for each species or group. Landscape context was assessed using binary, mosaic and continuous descriptions of vegetation cover within 250 m of the survey sites. We found that, in comparison to site-scale habitat quality, the composition of the surrounding landscape had little influence on reptiles, despite testing three alternative approaches for describing landscape context. Nine out of eleven reptile species and groups responded to variation in habitat quality, whereas just one species responded to variation in landscape context. Species richness, diversity, and abundance were unaffected by landscape context, but were influenced by site-scale structural complexity and vegetation type. Our findings suggest that reptiles, in general, benefit from conservation and restoration activities that focus on improving site-scale habitat quality, with increasing the amount and connectivity of surrounding vegetation of lesser value. This study also highlights the importance of better understanding the drivers of reptile distributions and abundances in dryland landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity offset trades usually aim to achieve ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity. But the question remains: no net loss compared to what? Determining whether an offset can compensate for a given impact requires assumptions about the counterfactual scenario—that which would have happened without the offset—against which the gain at an offset site can be estimated. Where this counterfactual scenario, or ‘crediting baseline’, assumes a future trajectory of biodiversity decline, the intended net outcome of the offset trade is maintenance of that declining trajectory. If the rate of decline of the crediting baseline is implausibly steep, biodiversity offset trades can exacerbate biodiversity decline. We examined crediting baselines used in offset policies across Australia, and compared them with recent estimates of decline in woody vegetation extent. All jurisdictions permitted offset credit generated using averted loss—implying an assumption of background decline—but few were explicit about their crediting baseline. The credit calculation approaches implied assumed crediting baselines of up to 4.2% loss (of vegetation extent and/or condition) per annum; on average, the crediting baselines were >5 times steeper than recent rates of vegetation loss. For these crediting baselines to be plausible, declines in vegetation condition must be rapid, but this was not reflected in the approaches for which assumptions about decline in extent and condition could be separated. We conclude that crediting baselines in Australian offset schemes risk exacerbating biodiversity loss. The near-ubiquitous use of declining crediting baselines risks ‘locking in’ biodiversity decline across impact and offset sites, with implications for biodiversity conservation more broadly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecologists are increasingly using bioacoustics in wildlife monitoring programs. Remote autonomous sound recorders provide new options for collecting data for species and in contexts that were previously difficult. However, post-processing of sound files to extract relevant data remains a significant challenge. Detection algorithms, or call recognizers, can aid automation of species detection but their performance and reliability has been mixed. Further, building recognizers typically requires either costly commercial software or expert programming skills, both of which reduces their accessibility to ecologists responsible for monitoring. In this study we investigated the performance of open-source call recognizers provided by the monitoR package in R, a language popular among ecologists. We tested recognizers on sound data collected under natural conditions at nests of two endangered subspecies of black-cockatoo, the Kangaroo Island glossy black-cockatoo Calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus (n = 23 nests), and the south-eastern red-tailed black-cockatoo Calyptorhynchus banksii graptogyne (n = 20 nests). Specifically, we tested the performance of binary point matching recognizers in confirming daily nest activity (active or inactive) and nesting outcome (fledge or fail). We tested recognizers on recordings from nests of known status using 3 × 3-h recordings per nest, from early, mid and late stages of the recording period. Daily nest activity was correctly assigned in 61.7% of survey days analysed (n = 60 days) for the red-tailed black-cockatoo, and 62.3% of survey days (n = 69 days) for the glossy black-cockatoo. Fledging was successfully detected in all cases. Precision (true positive / true positive + false positive) of individual detections was 70.2% for the south-eastern red-tailed black-cockatoo and 37.1% for the Kangaroo Island glossy black-cockatoo. Manual verification of outputs is still required, but it is not necessary to verify all detections to confirm an active nest (i.e., nest is deemed active when true positives are identified). We conclude that bioacoustics combined with semi-automated post-processing can be an appropriate tool for nest monitoring in these endangered subspecies. • Bioacoustic monitoring requires efficient and accessible call recognition methods. • We examined open-source recognizers for nest monitoring in black-cockatoos. • Recognizers correctly assigned nest activity in roughly 60% of survey days. • Fledging was detected by the recognizers. • Bioacoustics and semi-automated post-processing are useful for nest monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fire plays an important role in maintaining grassy forests, and reduced fire frequency has been linked to encroachment of woody plants into grassy forests and woodlands globally. In Australia a range of threatened animals, including the northern population of the endangered eastern bristlebird (Dasyornis brachypterus), are dependent on grassy forests. We examined this issue by collating three decades of detailed monitoring and fire data for 43 current and historically-occupied bristlebird sites, and examined the relationships among fire history, bristlebird occupancy and habitat patch size/condition. Habitat patch size declined by over 50% between 1980 and 2009 due to woody plant encroachment. Bristlebird occupancy was associated with reduced habitat loss and time since fire, while reduced fire frequency was the main predictor of decline in grassy cover, a critical habitat element for bristlebirds. Our models suggested habitat loss was strongly influenced by fire history, particularly fire frequency, with reduced habitat loss associated with more-frequent burning. Native grass cover can return quickly, and remained high until 5–10 years post-fire; densest grass cover was found at sites with fire intervals of between 3.5 and 7 years. Active fire management, including regular ecological burning, is imperative for conservation of the eastern bristlebird and other threatened fauna that depend on these grassy forests. The massive changes in global patterns of fire currently occurring, and the threat this poses to biodiversity, make understanding the nuances of fire ecology, including the role of fire frequency, essential to improving conservation management. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We compared bird assemblages among forest tenures in lowland Nepal. [•] Differently management off-reserve forests support complementary bird assemblages. [•] Bark-foraging birds were more abundant in protected areas and community forests. [•] Community forests can be valuable complements to protected areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The science and practice of ecological restoration are increasingly being called upon to compensate for the loss of biodiversity values caused by development projects. Biodiversity offsetting—compensating for losses of biodiversity at an impact site by generating ecologically equivalent gains elsewhere—therefore places substantial faith in the ability of restoration to recover lost biodiversity. Furthermore, the increase in offset-led restoration multiplies the consequences of failure to restore, since the promise of effective restoration may increase the chance that damage to biodiversity is permitted. But what evidence exists that restoration science and practice can reliably, or even feasibly, achieve the goal of ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity, and under what circumstances are successes and failures more likely? Using recent reviews of the restoration ecology literature, we examine the effectiveness of restoration as an approach for offsetting biodiversity loss, and conclude that many of the expectations set by current offset policy for ecological restoration remain unsupported by evidence. We introduce a conceptual model that illustrates three factors that limit the technical success of offsets: time lags, uncertainty and measurability of the value being offset. These factors can be managed to some extent through sound offset policy design that incorporates active adaptive management, time discounting, explicit accounting for uncertainty, and biodiversity banking. Nevertheless, the domain within which restoration can deliver ‘no net loss’ offsets remains small. A narrowing of the gap between the expectations set by offset policies and the practice of offsetting is urgently required and we urge the development of stronger links between restoration ecologists and those who make policies that are reliant upon restoration science. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

General guidelines available to revegetation planners focus on the spatial context and dimensions of the revegetated site. However, site-specific habitat factors can have overarching importance for habitat value, especially where interactions with competitors or predators may play an important role. Current revegetation projects in Australia which aim to restore slow-growing buloke (Allocasuarina luehmannii) woodland, a threatened habitat important for bird conservation, usually include faster-growing eucalypts in plantings. This research aimed to identify whether eucalypt presence in buloke woodland facilitates invasion by the noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala), an aggressive competitor that is absent from pure buloke woodland. Birds were surveyed in buloke woodland remnants that contained eucalypts as a sub-dominant species at densities of 0–16 per ha. The probability of noisy miner presence in buloke woodland increased markedly where eucalypts were present at a density of approximately five per hectare. The presence of noisy miners resulted in a substantial difference in bird assemblage structure and composition. Small-bodied insectivorous birds which are experiencing population declines in southern Australia were recorded on average six times more often in transects without noisy miners (low-eucalypt density transects). Avian behaviour and habitat use was also altered, with birds flying more frequently in transects where noisy miners were present. A minor difference in habitat composition results in substantial degradation of the conservation value of non-eucalypt woodland in eastern Australia due to invasion by aggressive avian competitors. Revegetation and restoration practices should take into account the potential for such subtle floristic differences to result in substantial variation in conservation outcomes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The global trend toward more intensive forms of agriculture is changing the nature of matrix habitat in agricultural areas. Removal of components of matrix habitat can affect native biota at the paddock and the landscape scale, particularly where intensification occurs over large areas. We identify the loss of paddock trees due to the proliferation of centre pivot irrigation in dryland farming areas as a potentially serious threat to the remnant biota of these areas. We used a region of south-eastern Australia as a case study to quantify land use change from grazing and dryland cropping to centre pivot irrigation over a 23-year period. We also estimated rates of paddock tree loss in 5 representative landscapes within the region over the same period. The total area affected by centre pivots increased from 0ha in 1980 to nearly 9000ha by 2005. Pivots were more likely to be established in areas which had originally been plains savannah and woodlands containing buloke (Allocasuarina luehmannii), a food source for an endangered bird. On average, 42% of paddock buloke trees present in 1982 were lost by 2005. In the two landscapes containing several centre pivots, the loss was 54% and 70%. This accelerated loss of important components of matrix habitat is likely to result in species declines and local extinctions. We recommend that measures to alleviate the likely negative impacts of matrix habitat loss on native biota be considered as part of regional planning strategies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Forestry practices such as fuel-reduction burning and maintenance of road networks can negatively impact avian assemblages, both directly by changing habitat structure and indirectly by creating conditions favorable for predators or competitors. The Brigalow Belt forests include some of the largest contiguous areas of native forest in the temperate and sub-humid zones of eastern Australia. Over 1millionha of these forests are proposed to be converted from forestry to conservation tenure, yet the impacts on the avifauna of current and potential future forest management practices are not known. We investigated the influence of road edges and habitat type and structure on the avifauna of a 356000ha forest. Survey sites were either <50m or >300m from a road, and in either cypress pine Callitris glaucophylla forest, spotted gum Corymbia citriodora forest with a regenerating cypress pine/buloke Allocasuarina luehmannii understorey or spotted gum forest with an open understorey due to fuel-reduction burning. The avifauna differed significantly among vegetation types but not with proximity to a road, with the greatest differences between cypress pine and both types of spotted gum forest. The noisy miner Manorina melanocephala, an aggressive avian competitor, appears to be the factor mediating these assemblage-level differences. Noisy miners were rare in cypress pine forest but were three times more numerous than any other species in spotted gum forest. Spotted gum forest with a regenerating understorey had fewer noisy miners. Although total bird abundance was highest in open spotted gum forest, the species richness and abundance of passerines smaller than noisy miners was significantly lower in this forest type. Abundance of small passerines was eight times higher in sites where <3 noisy miners were recorded. Only one species, the eastern yellow robin, was influenced by proximity to a road edge. Cypress pine forest is potentially an important refuge for smaller birds. The results suggest that burning regimes that reduce regeneration of the cypress pine and buloke subcanopy in spotted gum forest potentially are exacerbating the problem of noisy miner domination of the avifauna. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Remnants of native vegetation in regions dominated by agriculture are subject to degradation, especially by livestock grazing and weed invasion. Ground-foraging birds are amongst the most threatened bird groups in Australia, and these agents of degradation might be contributing to their decline by causing a reduction in food availability. We studied the foraging behaviour and microhabitat use of seven species of ground-foraging insectivores in south-eastern Australian buloke woodland remnants with native, grazed and weedy ground-layers. If birds must resort to using more energetically expensive prey-attack manoeuvres, or selectively use substrates and microhabitats that are less available in degraded habitats, then such degradation is likely to be negatively impacting on these species. We found evidence of a negative impact of one or both of these types of degradation on five of the seven bird species. Three species that employ a range of foraging manoeuvres to attack prey used potentially more energetically expensive aerial manoeuvres significantly more frequently in weedy remnants than in remnants with a native or grazed ground layer. Red-capped robins Petroica goodenovii and brown treecreepers Climacteris picumnus both selectively foraged near trees in grazed sites, and hooded robins Melanodryas cucullata, red-capped robins and willie wagtails Rhipidura leucophrys avoided foraging in microhabitats with a high percentage cover of exotic grasses in weedy sites. Brown treecreepers were also less likely to be present in weedy sites that had been protected from grazing than in either grazed or native sites. These results suggest that although grazing appears to have a detrimental impact on foraging habitat of ground-foraging birds, the exclusion of livestock grazing from previously disturbed buloke remnants alone is not adequate to restore habitat values for ground-foraging birds. A conservation strategy for this habitat type should consider the exclusion of heavy grazing from sites with an intact cryptogamic crust and the management of weeds in disturbed remnants, potentially through the use of carefully controlled light grazing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Tropical deforestation continues at high rates in many regions, but it is often reported only in terms of area lost or its impacts on high-profile threatened species. Here, we examined the impact of both past and projected future deforestation on habitat extent for the entire assemblage of forest-dependent birds across the country with the greatest richness of bird species: Colombia. Of the 550 forest-dependent species analysed, almost all (n = 536; 96.5%) had lost habitat, and 18% had lost at least half of their habitat by 2015. We used the recently developed Loss Index (LI) to capture the severity of habitat loss for the forest bird assemblage, discovering that the current LI for Colombia is 35, which means 35% of bird species have lost at least 35% of their habitat. However, there were large regional differences. The national LI for Colombia is projected to rise to 43 by 2040 if recent forest loss trends continue. A threat assessment for the regionally-endemic species in the country showed that 12 (30%) of the species that are projected to lose 50% or more of their historical habitat by 2040 are not currently classified as threatened by the IUCN, suggesting that there are many unlisted species that face an imminent extinction threat from ongoing habitat loss. This extensive habitat depletion affecting entire species assemblages has significant implications for tropical forest ecosystems. We consider the risks this poses to ecosystem function and ecosystem service provision in Colombia's forests, and the ramifications of our findings for other tropical biodiversity hotspots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Market-like mechanisms for biodiversity offsetting have emerged globally as supposedly cost-effective approaches for mitigating the impacts of development. In reality, offset buyers have commonly found that required credits are scarce and/or expensive. One response has been to seek improved market functionality, increasing eligible offset supply by allowing greater flexibility in the offset trading rules. These include increasing the size of geographical trading areas and expanding out-of-kind trades ('geographical' and 'ecological' flexibility). We summarise the arguments for and against flexibility, ultimately arguing that increasing flexibility undermines the achievement of No Net Loss (or Net Gain) of biodiversity where high-quality governance is lacking. We argue expanding out-of-kind trading often increases the pool of potentially eligible offsets with limited conservation justification. This interferes with vital information regarding the scarcity of the impacted biodiversity feature, thereby disincentivising impact avoidance. When a biodiversity feature under threat of development is scarce, expensive offsets are an essential feature of the economics of offsetting which communicate that scarcity, not a problem to be regulated away. We present examples where increasing ecological flexibility may be justifying the loss of conservation priorities. We also discuss how increasing geographical flexibility might compromise the additionality principle. We highlight alternative mechanisms for enhancing offset supply without the risks associated with increasing flexibility, including reducing policy uncertainty and improving engagement and awareness to increase landholder participation. Although there are legitimate reasons for increasing offsetting flexibility in some specific contexts, we argue that the biodiversity risks are considerable, and potentially undermine 'no net loss' outcomes. • As a market-like mechanism, biodiversity offsetting is perceived to function poorly. • In some systems, there is a trend towards more flexible offset trading rules. • Increasing ecological flexibility may undermine biodiversity impact avoidance. • Geographical flexibility may undermine offset additionality. • Improving public awareness and regulatory certainty can improve market function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban areas are sources of land use change and CO 2 emissions that contribute to global climate change. Despite this, assessments of urban vegetation carbon stocks often fail to identify important landscape-scale drivers of variation in urban carbon, especially the potential effects of landscape structure variables at different spatial scales. We combined field measurements with Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) data to build high-resolution models of woody plant aboveground carbon across the urban portion of Brisbane, Australia, and then identified landscape scale drivers of these carbon stocks. First, we used LiDAR data to quantify the extent and vertical structure of vegetation across the city at high resolution (5 × 5 m). Next, we paired this data with aboveground carbon measurements at 219 sites to create boosted regression tree models and map aboveground carbon across the city. We then used these maps to determine how spatial variation in land cover/land use and landscape structure affects these carbon stocks. Foliage densities above 5 m height, tree canopy height, and the presence of ground openings had the strongest relationships with aboveground carbon. Using these fine-scale relationships, we estimate that 2.2 ± 0.4 TgC are stored aboveground in the urban portion of Brisbane, with mean densities of 32.6 ± 5.8 MgC ha − 1 calculated across the entire urban land area, and 110.9 ± 19.7 Mg C ha − 1 calculated within treed areas. Predicted carbon densities within treed areas showed strong positive relationships with the proportion of surrounding tree cover and how clumped that tree cover was at both 1 km 2 and 1 ha resolutions. Our models predict that even dense urban areas with low tree cover can have high carbon densities at fine scales. We conclude that actions and policies aimed at increasing urban carbon should focus on those areas where urban tree cover is most fragmented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offsetting impacts on fishery resources under losses of marine habitats due to development is important to help safeguard seafood security. However, the gains that marine habitat restoration can create for fishery resources remain largely unquantified. It is unknown what area of fish habitats must be restored to fully offset a hectare of development impacts. Here, we quantify minimum offset areas required to achieve different indicators of no net loss (NNL) goals: economic value, catch of each species, and catch of most-caught species. Simulations are conducted by using a case study of mangrove habitat offsets in Australia to infer the minimum restoration area needed to fully offset fishery losses caused by 84 development projects. We establish two offset policy rules: offsetting closest to the impact site, and offsetting to maximise benefit regardless of location. Achieving NNL for all fishery species requires a substantially larger offset multiplier than achieving NNL for most-caught species, or for economic benefits. For all NNL objectives, choosing optimal offset sites can minimise the area needed for restoration, but required multipliers still always >1. The amount of offset area required to achieve NNL goals for fisheries per unit area lost for each development project increases as development projects accumulated, since the suitable sites for offsetting become scarcer. These results reveal the large and increasing costs of fully offsetting marine impacts and the increasing risks, especially where suitable offset sites are likely to be scarce. • Different offset policy rules require varying minimum offset areas for no net loss of ecosystem services. • Area of fish habitat restoration needed for no net loss of fishery benefits tend to increase as impacts accumulate. • Offsetting losses of fishery ecological benefits needs more habitats than that for fishery economic benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic pressures are driving insect declines across the world. Although protected areas (PAs) play a prominent role in safeguarding many vertebrate species from human-induced threats, insects are not widely considered when designing PA systems or building strategies for PA management. We review the effectiveness of PAs for insect conservation and find substantial taxonomic and geographic gaps in knowledge. Most research focuses on the representation of species, and few studies assess threats to insects or the role that effective PA management can play in insect conservation. We propose a four-step research agenda to help ensure that insects are central in efforts to expand the global PA network under the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. Insects dominate the biosphere and play a central role in ecosystem processes, but they are rapidly declining across the world. Protected areas (PAs) are designed to insulate biodiversity from human-induced threats, but they have been mainly designated for vertebrates and plants. Most research on insects in PAs focuses on the representation of species, and few studies assess threats to insects or the role that effective PA management can play. We propose a four-step research agenda to help to ensure that insects are central in efforts to expand the global PA network under the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest use practices such as logging, lopping of tree branches for fodder, and grazing do not reduce forest area but disturb forest structure and impact biodiversity. Although such forest disturbances can be key determinants of the biota occupying a site, rarely is the interaction between disturbance intensity and landscape context considered, despite its relevance to conservation management. We investigated the influence of site-and landscape-level habitat characteristics on birds, and explored whether the effects of site-level disturbance on bird richness varied with forest extent in lowland landscapes in Nepal. While extractive uses reduced forest structural complexity and altered the avifaunal community of a site, the intensity of such effects depended on the extent of forest in the surrounding landscape (19.6 km 2 ). The extent of forest, large tree density, and tree canopy cover were important predictors for all bird response groups. However, the effect of forest extent on bird richness was stronger for sites with greater disturbance intensity. Managing and restoring landscapes to support greater forest cover may not only have a positive direct effect on bird conservation, but may also help to compensate for site-level disturbance, such as characterises multiple-use forests worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Native remnants located in mining land scapes are less-used by forest-dependent birds than farmlands. [•] Adjacent surface mining, irrespective of distance to mine site negatively affect forest dependent birds in south-west Ghana. [•] Forest specialist and frugivore richness correlated positively with the density of large trees. [•] Increased surface mining is likely to result in population declines in forest birds without efficient restoration measures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] For reptiles, regrowth subtropical woodlands are equivalent in habitat value to remnant woodlands. [•] Passive regrowth can cost-effectively increase reptile diversity in disturbed landscapes. [•] Our findings were consistent in structurally diverse woodlands, indicating wider applicability. [•] Reptile abundance trends are highly variable and of little importance in determining habitat value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Temperate Australia’s wheat/sheep zone and much of Western Europe have both experienced dramatic declines in native bird populations associated with agricultural landscapes. We compare recent conservation strategies on private land in the context of each region’s historical agricultural development and the ecology of its bird fauna. Specifically, we consider which aspects of the conservation instruments and practices employed in European agricultural landscapes might be used to augment and inform approaches to private-land biodiversity conservation in Australia. Australian biodiversity conservation activities have focussed predominantly on remnant native vegetation and rarely target the agricultural matrix (i.e. land that is primarily used for agricultural production). However, declining species include those that not only primarily inhabit woodland, but also species for which components of the agricultural matrix are important, or even their main, habitat. In contrast, in Europe a range of conservation activities undertaken through agri-environment schemes focus explicitly on the management of the agricultural matrix. Whilst the different approaches to conservation on private land in Australia and Europe reflect the two continents’ different ecologies, land-use histories and political economies of agriculture, there are a number of parallels between bird population declines in the two regions, and an opportunity may exist to incorporate some of the successful aspects of the European agri-environment approach into emerging stewardship schemes in Australia. We suggest that the long-term nature of European agri-environment agreements, the principle of landholder payments more commensurate with reduced production opportunity and management actions specifically targeted at the agricultural matrix, are features of the European scheme that could benefit both woodland- and matrix-inhabiting bird species in Australian agricultural landscapes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

One of the basic purposes of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation interventions is to achieve conservation impact, the sum of avoided biodiversity loss and promoted recovery relative to outcomes without protection. In the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity's negotiations on the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, we find that targets for area-based interventions are framed overwhelmingly with measures that fail to inform decision-makers about impact and that risk diverting limited resources away from achieving it. We show that predicting impact in space and time is feasible and can provide the basis for global guidance for jurisdictions to develop targets for conservation impact and shift investment priorities to areas where impact can be most effectively achieved. A key role of area-based conservation is saving biodiversity or achieving conservation impact by avoiding loss and/or promoting recovery. Conservation measures commonly used as policy targets, such as extent of protection and representation of ecosystems and species, are unreliable guides to conservation impact. Most evaluations of the impact of area-based measures have been retrospective, but with lessons for future decisions. Recent developments in impact evaluation show the feasibility of predicting conservation impact as a basis for setting targets and priorities, applicable to a wide range of area-based measures. The post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework has the potential to guide jurisdictions in achieving quantitative targets for impact instead of targets based on measures that could cause area-based conservation interventions to fail in protecting imperiled biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity conservation is hampered by mismatches between conservation capacity and needs for research, funding, policy, and management. Here we show that a profound geographical mismatch also exists among editors of 20 leading conservation science journals. Collectively, these journals had few or sometimes no editors from many of the most biodiverse countries. This geographic bias likely influences what papers and topics are published and highlighted, and hinders global conservation goals. Compared with other biases, it is relatively easy to address this mismatch through journal policies and practices to recruit editors from under-represented countries, perhaps helping to reduce other mismatches too. Recruiting more editors from biodiversity-rich countries could improve conservation science by (1) adding diversity of expertise and perspectives to editorial boards and (2) creating capacity and empowering conservation leaders in countries where effective conservation is most needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deforestation threatens the earth's biodiversity and the ecosystem services upon which humans depend. Formal regulation is a key mechanism by which governments seek to protect forests. However, whether regulation can effectively protect remaining areas of the most threatened and most heavily cleared forests is unknown. We addressed this question using forest loss data for Queensland, Australia between 2000 and 2014 under existing vegetation clearing regulation ( Vegetation Management Act 1999 ). This regulation is specifically designed to provide the greatest protection for threatened forest types that have already lost the greatest amount of their original extent. Importantly, enforcement and governance of this regulation is relatively strong allowing an assessment of regulation design. We applied path analysis to model the direct and indirect effects (mediated by variables representing deforestation pressure) of forest protection level on clearing rates. There was strong evidence for a decline in clearing rates over time, except of clearing for non-agricultural purposes. However, threatened forest types, which have already lost > 70% of their original extent and should have the greatest level of protection under the regulation, continue to be cleared 2.7–2.9 times faster than non-threatened forest types. There was also little evidence that the regulation has driven greater reductions over time in the clearing rates of threatened versus non-threatened forests types. There was much greater support for the indirect than direct effect of protection level. This is because protection level was correlated with variables associated with deforestation pressure, resulting in higher clearing rates for threatened compared to non-threatened forest types. We hypothesise that this arises because the additional protection afforded to threatened relative to non-threatened forests is insufficient to counter the continuing higher level of deforestation pressure on threatened forests. We argue that a potential solution is to build explicit targets for forest retention into regulation, below which no further forest loss is permitted. This could be combined with spatially targeted enforcement and incentive strategies where threats are highest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summarising the evidence about 'what works' for conservation is an important first step towards implementing evidence-based practice. Australian woodland birds form diverse sets of ecological communities of conservation concern, yet despite decades of research and management, it is unclear which interventions are reliably effective. Using a systematic map and review, we synthesised the scientific evidence (142 published and unpublished studies) about the response of Australian woodland birds to 26 conservation interventions. The interventions most frequently studied were replanting, grazing management, fire management and natural regeneration. There were 106 articles that measured species richness and/or abundance. Due to the lack of a business-as-usual control or ineligible statistical reporting, only 35 % of these (n = 37) had suitable data that we could use to synthesise the outcomes. For most interventions, there were too few comparable studies to support meta-analysis. We identified that replanting native vegetation and retaining coarse woody debris were consistently reported to have positive effects on woodland bird species richness and total abundance, albeit based on a very small sample of studies (n = 2–3). In contrast, prescribed burning, noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala) control, natural regeneration, grazing management and site protection had mixed results – i.e., some studies found no effect, while others reported positive or negative outcomes. This review provides a comprehensive database of studies testing management effectiveness for Australian woodland birds, but reveals knowledge gaps in the evidence for even widely implemented interventions. We highlight the need for statistically and experimentally robust studies evaluating the effectiveness of conservation actions. • We collate evidence of effectiveness for 26 actions for Australian woodland birds. • Controlling fire, noisy miners & grazing and natural regeneration had mixed results. • Evidence on the effect of most interventions for richness and abundance was limited. • This comprehensive database provides relevant information for decision-makers. • Future studies evaluating management impact need suitable counterfactual controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity offsetting is widely applied but its effectiveness is rarely assessed. We evaluated the effectiveness of a nest box program intended to offset clearing of hollow-bearing trees associated with a freeway upgrade in southern Australia. The offset targeted three threatened vertebrates: squirrel glider ( Petaurus norfolcensis ), brown treecreeper ( Climacteris picumnus ) and superb parrot ( Polytelis swainsonii ). Clearing led to the loss of 587 tree hollows and the offset was the placement of an equivalent number of nest boxes in nearby woodland (1:1 ratio). Of these, we monitored 324 nest boxes in six sample periods between 2010 and 2013, yielding 2485 individual checks of nest boxes. For the three target species, we found: (1) no records of nest box use by the superb parrot, (2) two records of the brown treecreeper (0–0.76% of accessible nest boxes used per survey period), and (3) seven records of use of nest boxes by the squirrel glider (0–2.1% of accessible nest boxes used per survey period). Rates of nest box use by the superb parrot and squirrel glider were markedly lower than rates of use of hollow-bearing trees observed in other investigations. Low levels of use by target species coupled with the extent of nest box attrition suggest the offset program will not have counterbalanced the loss of the hollow-bearing trees. We make suggestions for improving future offset programs including a greater emphasis on: (1) avoiding impacts on hollow-bearing trees; (2) offset effectiveness as a measure of compliance; and (3) using realistic offset ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We built three composite indicators on bird population changes in subtropical Asia. • Very few declining breeding bird species between 2011 and 2019 in Taiwan. • Both forest bird indicator and farmland bird indicator increased gradually. • Introduced species indicator showed a rapid growth and posing a potential risk. Multi-species indicators (MSIs) have been useful tools for reflecting the state of taxa and ecosystems at global, regional, and national levels. However, most indicators are from Europe and North America, and there are few from the world's major tropical and subtropical biodiversity hotspots, often in large part because of insufficient data availability. We modelled the population trajectories of 107 regularly-occurring breeding bird species in Taiwan (100 native and seven introduced species) and developed MSIs for (i) forest, (ii) farmland, and (iii) introduced bird species based on the Taiwan Breeding Bird Survey dataset between 2011 and 2019. Individual population trajectories for 87 species did not show a significant change, those for 11 species grew significantly, and those for two species declined significantly. All MSIs show significant growth. Based on the phylogenetic generalised least squares (PGLS) results, the forest bird indicator increased somewhat more rapidly than the farmland bird indicator, perhaps reflecting very low rates of deforestation contrasting with more rapid land use change on farmlands in Taiwan. Some of the forest and farmland species, however, showed rapid declines, and most of these atypical decliners were common species or carnivores. Further, the PLGS results show that the introduced species indicator had more rapid growth than native species indicators, posing a potential risk for the integrity of native bird communities in the near future as well as compromising broader ecosystem intactness. Our study provides important information on bird population changes in subtropical Asia. The MSIs will be updated regularly and will be used to provide information to support conservation policies in Taiwan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earth's extinction crisis is escalating, and threat classification schemes are increasingly important for assessing the prominent drivers and threats causing species declines. However, a complementary framework for assessing the conservation responses needed to abate these threatening processes is lacking. Here we draw on expert knowledge and published literature to develop a threat-abatement framework which groups threats based on the shared conservation goal of the actions needed to abate their impact and apply it to 1532 threatened species across the Australian continent. Our analysis shows that the most important conservation actions across Australia are to retain and restore habitat, due to the threats posed by habitat destruction and degradation (via logging, mining, urbanisation, roads, and agriculture) to 86 % of Australia's threatened species. Most species also require the effective control of invasive species and diseases (82 %) and improved fire management (66 %). Countering individual threats will not be enough to support species survival or recovery, because almost all species (89 %) require multiple, integrated management responses to redress their threats. Our threat abatement framework enables rapid identification of broad conservation responses to aid recovery of threatened species and can be applied in other regions, scales and contexts. • Threat classifications need complementary conservation responses to inform action • We develop a threat-abatement framework and apply it to Australian threatened species • The most important conservation action in Australia is to retain and restore habitat • Control of invasive species/diseases and improved fire management are also important • Greater emphasis on conservation responses is needed to redress the extinction crisis [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The manipulation of habitat through thinning and logging activities may have cascading effects on fauna because of direct and indirect changes to key habitat features. However, the combined effect of thinning and logging on fauna has not been investigated for Australian forests, despite the widespread use of thinning as a silvicultural management tool in selectively logged forests, and the emerging interest in thinning for biofuels. We therefore surveyed reptiles, birds and key habitat variables at sites selected to sample four management classes reflecting categories of thinning and/or logging activity in cypress pine Callitris glaucophylla forests of the Brigalow Belt bioregion of Australia. Habitat structure and assemblages of reptile and bird species were distinct across the four management classes, reflecting long-term cumulative impacts of small- and/or large-diameter tree removal in a dynamic system, but the response of various functional groups of species was mixed. Recovery of some habitat elements (e.g. small trees) to a state that maintains densities of most fauna species appears to be relatively rapid, but depends on the combined effect of thinning and logging. Other habitat elements, such as large cypress trees which were reduced by logging and unaffected by thinning, require longer time frames to mature and therefore will be critical resources to maintain during future management activities in cypress forests. Overall, it appears that thinning activities affect fauna and therefore must be considered when making decisions about forest management. We suggest management of production forests aims for a mosaic of thinning and/or logging combinations across the landscape, but emphasise the importance of retaining or restoring unthinned and unlogged areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landscape structure and fragmentation have important effects on ecosystem services, with a common assumption being that fragmentation reduces service provision. This is based on fragmentation's expected effects on ecosystem service supply, but ignores how fragmentation influences the flow of services to people. Here we develop a new conceptual framework that explicitly considers the links between landscape fragmentation, the supply of services, and the flow of services to people. We argue that fragmentation's effects on ecosystem service flow can be positive or negative, and use our framework to construct testable hypotheses about the effects of fragmentation on final ecosystem service provision. Empirical efforts to apply and test this framework are critical to improving landscape management for multiple ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Setting aside private land is an essential component of the biodiversity crisis response. In Brazil, landowners are required to have Legal Reserves (LR) (20%–80% of their property set aside for native vegetation) which, if degraded, need to be restored. Alternatively, landowners can compensate for an LR deficit by purchasing surplus credits. Each landowner can define the location and spatial arrangement of their LR, affecting the reserve's ability to maintain biodiversity and provide ecosystem services (ES). We used hierarchical models to determine drivers for the amount and location of those LR in 3622 farms. The likelihood of setting aside part of the farm as LR (avoiding off-farm compensation) increased with farm size and extent of native vegetation cover, particularly for riparian areas and steep slopes, where conserving vegetation is also mandated in what are called Areas of Permanent Protection (APP). Properties with APP were more likely to meet the full LR requirement within their areas if located in areas of higher transportation costs and lower agricultural suitability. Within properties, the location of LR was mostly in areas with low agricultural suitability, high transportation cost, and close to APP. Landowners' decisions intend to maximize property income and reduce restoration costs, resulting in a spatial pattern similar to public protected areas — usually located on marginal land for agriculture. These areas do not necessarily provide the greatest biodiversity and ES benefits, suggesting that government interventions may be needed to encourage landowners to set aside native vegetation in ways that maximize conservation and ES outcomes. [Display omitted] • Economic processes determine landowner decision around private land conservation. • Decision-making maximizes property income and reduces restoration costs. • Farms with low vegetation cover are less likely to restore or set in-farm reserves. • Conservation in-farm in our area has a similar location bias to protected areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of armed conflict on deforestation in biodiverse regions across Earth remains poorly understood. Its association with factors like illegal crop cultivation can obscure its effect on deforestation patterns. We used Colombia, a global biodiversity hotspot with a complex political history, to explore the association of both armed conflict and coca cultivation with deforestation patterns. We generated spatial predictions of deforestation pressure based on the period 2000–2015 to understand how armed conflict and coca cultivation are associated with spatial patterns of deforestation and assess the spatial distribution of deforestation pressure induced by armed conflict and coca cultivation. Deforestation was positively associated with armed conflict intensity and proximity to illegal coca plantations. A deforestation model including 14 variables was 78% accurate in predicting deforestation at a 10 km2 resolution. On their own armed conflict and coca cultivation had a notable effect, particularly in the Amazon, but in combination with other variables it was small. Deforestation pressure induced by armed conflict and coca cultivation was highest in Tumaco and Catatumbo regions and in la Macarena, Sierra Nevada and San Lucas mountains—all areas of high biodiversity and conservation importance. In some regions, lack of governance after the peace accords is increasing armed conflict, and our results suggest that those increases in conflict may increase deforestation in those areas. The methods used here can be replicated to help understand the complex ways in which armed conflict affects deforestation patterns in other regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]