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A three-year field study was conducted to explore the use of Conservation Agriculture (CA) as a cost-effective alternative to conventional tillage (CT) in rice-wheat (RW) systems. Therefore, to minimize the weed menace while sustaining the system productivity, a three-year field study was undertaken with different CA-based practices layered with flooded (FI) and subsurface drip irrigation (SDI). In rice, weed density (WD) in Sc8 {Zero tillage direct seeded rice with residue (+R) and SDI} recorded 72.9% lowered then Sc1 (CT-Puddled transplanted rice) after three years. However, maximum WD (162 m−2) and dry matter (WDM; 772.8 g m−2) were recorded in ZTDSR without residue (-R) with FI (Sc3) during third year which reduced rice yield by ∼37%. In wheat, the WD and WDM of Phalaris minor, Coronopus didymus, Melilotus indica and other species lowered in CA with SDI system (Sc5-Sc8) than CTRW system (Sc1 and Sc2). Lowest weed index (WI) observed with Sc8 during third year, while diversity indices (H', R, E) increased by 10, 57 and 10% under SDI system than CTW-R scenario (Sc1). CA-system improved productivity by 7.40–37.11% over CTRW systems in weed free (WF) conditions, regardless of residue and irrigation management. Under weedy check (WC), Sc8 was top yielder with yield of 8.32 Mg ha−1. Moreover, sustainable intensification (Sc7-Sc8) improved productivity by 35.2 and ∼52% than CTRW systems in WF and WC plots, respectively. In conclusion, CA+SDI scenarios may be recommended for RW system owing to their system yield enhancement, resource savings and weed reduction advantages. [Display omitted] • CA based sustainable intensification options ensures food security in IGP. • CA with SDI reduced the weed density (∼73% in rice) then CT system. • CA with SDI increased the diversity indices (H′, R, E) then CT wheat. • In weedy check, CA with SDI get higher system yield then CT rice-wheat system. • Mungbean integration in CA based RW system with SDI owing yield enhancement, resource savings and weed reduction advantages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excessive pumping of groundwater over the years to meet the high irrigation water requirement of rice-wheat system has resulted in over exploitation of groundwater in the Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP) of India. Replacement of traditional rice with less water crops such as maize under conservation agriculture (CA) based management (tillage, crop establishment and residue management) practices are required to promote sustainable intensification. Furthermore, inefficient nutrient management practices are responsible for low crop yields and nutrient use efficiencies in MW system. A 3-year field experiment was conducted in farmer’s participatory strategic research mode at Taraori, Karnal, India to evaluate the effects of tillage and crop establishment (TCE) methods, residue management, mungbean integration, and nutrient management practices on crop yields, water productivity and profitability of MW system. The main plot treatments included four combinations of TCE, residue and mungbean integration [conventional tillage (CT), conventional tillage with mungbean (CT + MB), permanent bed (PB) and permanent bed with MB (PB + MB] with three nutrient management practices [farmer’s fertilizer practice (FFP), recommended dose of fertilize (RDF) and site specific nutrient management (SSNM)] using Nutrient Expert ® as sub plot treatments. System productivity, water use efficiency (WUE) and net returns under PB + MB were significantly increased by 28.2–30.7%, 27.8–31.0% and 36.8–40.5% compared to CT respectively, during three years of experimentation. Integration of MB in MW system contributed 24.9 and 27.6% increases in system productivity and net returns compared with no MB, respectively. SSNM based nutrient management increased the mean (averaged across 3 yrs) system productivity, WUE and net returns of MW system by 13.4%, 13.3% and 15.3% compared with FFP, respectively. Study showed that conservation agriculture based sustainable intensification (PB + MB) and SSNM approach provided opportunities for enhancing crop and water use efficiency, and profitability of MW system in North-West IGP of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Serious water deficits, diminishing profitability and deteriorating natural resources are threatening agricultural sustainability in many regions of South Asia. High water input and low water productivity of conventional irrigated rice–wheat (RW) systems has led to the depletion of surface water and ground waters in northwest India. Conservation agriculture (CA) practices with precision irrigation management and replacing rice with low water requiring maize crop may help to achieve sustainable crop production in the western Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of India. A three-year field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of CA-based management (tillage, crop establishment, residue management mungbean integration), precision water management on crop and water productivity, and economic profitability in RW and maize-wheat (MW) systems. The treatments for RW systems included: i) conventional till rice-wheat with irrigation scheduling at critical growth stages (CTRW); ii) CTRW + mungbean (CTRW + MB); iii) Zero-till RW with residue retention (+R) scheduling precise irrigation (PI) based on soil matric potential approach (ZTRW + R + PI); and iv) ZTRW + MB + R + PI. A similar set of treatments was evaluated for MW systems, except the crops were established on raised fresh beds (FB) and permanent beds (PB). Treatment PBMW + MB + R + PI recorded 38% higher system productivity, saved 1660 mm of irrigation water, increased irrigation + rainfall water productivity (WP I+R ,) by 270% and increased net returns by 84% compared to CTRW. ZTRW + MB + R + PI recorded 24, 41 and 37% (3 yrs’ mean) higher system productivity, WP I+R and net returns, respectively, compared to CTRW. System productivity was increased by 19 and 33%, WP I+R by 223 and 29% and net returns by 84 and 57% with ZTRW and PBMW compared to CTRW, respectively irrespective of MB integration and residue management. On average, inclusion of MB in cereal systems (RW/MW) contributed an 18% increase in system productivity and a 15% increase in net returns. CA based sustainable intensification of MW systems (PBMW + MB + R + PI) is a better alternative to RW system (ZTRW + MB + R + PI) as it provides opportunities for saving 79% of precious water, enhancing crop and water productivity by 12 and 145%, respectively along with high (34%) economic benefits thereby helping to arrest decline in ground water table in the North-West IGP of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several resource use efficient technologies and practices have been developed and deployed to address the challenges related to natural resource degradation and climatic risks management in rice-wheat (RW) rotation of Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). However, the practices applied in isolation may not be effective as much as in combination due to changing input responses under varied weather abnormalities. Therefore, a multi-location farmer’s participatory strategic research was conducted to evaluate the effects of layering key technologies, practices and services in varied combinations and compared with business as usual (farmer’s practice) for productivity (crop, water and energy), profitability and global warming potential (GWP) in a RW system. Altogether, six scenarios were compared that includes; Farmer’s practice (FP); Improved FP (IFP) with low intensity of adaptive measures; IFP with high intensity of adaptive measures (IFP-AM); Climate smart agriculture (CSA) with low intensity of adaptive measures (CSA-L); CSA with medium intensity of adaptive measures (CSA-M); CSA with high intensity of adaptive measures (CSA-H). Results revealed that climate smart agricultural practice with high intensity of adaptive measures (CSA-H) recorded 7–9 and 19–26% higher system productivity and profitability, respectively compared to farmers’ practice in all the three years. CSAPs (mean of CSA-L, CSA-M and CSA-H) improved the system productivity and profitability by 6 and 19% (3 yrs’ mean) whereas, IFPs (mean of IFP and IFP-AM) by 2 and 5%, respectively compared to farmer’s practice (11.79 t ha −1 and USD 1833 ha −1 ). CSA with high (CSA-H) and medium (CSA-M) intensity of adaptive measures saved 17–30% of irrigation water and improved irrigation and total water productivity (WP I and WP I+R ) by 29–54 and 21–38%, respectively compared to FP in the study years. Across the years, CSA-H improved the energy-use-efficiency (EUE) and energy productivity (EP) by 43–61 and 44–56% respectively, compared to farmers’ practice. On 3 years mean basis, CSA-H lowered global warming potential (GWP) and greenhouse gas intensity by 40 and 44% respectively, compared to FP (7653 kg CO 2  eq ha −1  yr −1 and 0.64 kg kg −1  CO 2  eq ha −1  yr −1 ). On 3 years mean basis, our study revealed that CSA with high intensity of adaptive measures (CSA-H) increased 8% in system productivity, 23% in profitability, 31% in total water productivity and 53% in energy productivity with 24% less water while reducing the GWP by 40%. The improvement in yield, income as well as use efficiency of water and energy and reduction in GHGs was increasing with layering of portfolio of practices on farmers’ practice. This study helps in prioritizing the technological practices from the portfolio of CSAPs for maximizing crop productivity, profitability and input use efficiency while improving the adaptive capacity and reducing the environmental footprints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disposal of paddy residue has turn out to be a huge problem in north-west Indian states, resulting farmers prefer to burn the residues in-situ. Paddy residue management is of utmost important as it contains plant nutrients and improves the soil-plant-atmospheric continuum. Burning biomass not only pollutes environment and results in loss of appreciable amount of plant essential nutrients. The objectives of the review paper is to access the amount of residue generation, its utilization in-situ and ex-situ, emphasize harmful effects of residue burning on human health, soil health and environment of north-west states of India specially in Punjab and Haryana. This paper also discusses the possible strategies, financial and socio-economic evaluation of the paddy residue management technologies and accentuates the assessment of range of potential policy instruments which would offer avenues for sustainable agriculture and environment. Timely availability of conservation agriculture (CA) machinery is of utmost significance to manage the paddy residues in-situ. Collection and transportation of voluminous mass of paddy residue is cumbersome, therefore, ex-situ residue management is still not an economically viable option. The agricultural waste opens vivid options for its versatile usage and is possible if residue is collected and managed properly. It is a prerequisite for surplus residues to be used for CA. There is an urge to create awareness among farming communities to incline them to understand importance of crop residues in CA for sustainability and resilience of Indian agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In agriculture production system, soil enzymes are important indicators of soil quality. Measurements of soil quality parameter changes are essential for assessing the impact of soil and crop management practices. Keeping this in view, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the enzyme activities namely dehydrogenase (DHA), β-glucosidase, acid and alkaline phosphatase (AcP & AlP), fluorescein diacetate hydrolases (FDH), cellulase, urease and aryl sulphatase in rhizosphere and bulk soil after 8 years of different management regimes. Soil organic carbon (SOC), moisture content and few enzyme indices such as enzymatic pH indicator (AcP/AlP), alteration index three (Al3) and geometric mean (GMea) were also measured. The treatments were conventional rice-wheat system (termed as scenario (Sc1), CT system), partial conservation agriculture (CA)-based rice-wheat-mungbean system (Sc2, PCA-RW), partial climate smart agriculture (CSA)-based rice-wheat-mungbean system (Sc3), partial CSA-based maize-wheat-mungbean system (Sc4), full CSA-based rice-wheat-mungbean system (Sc5), and full CSA-based maize-wheat-mungbean system (Sc6). Soil samples were collected from rhizosphere and away from roots (bulk soil) at 0–15 cm soil depth before sowing (from rhizosphere of previous crops), at maximum tillering, flowering, and after harvesting of wheat crop. Results showed that DHA activity was higher before sowing (59.8%), at maximum tillering (48.4%), flowering (8.6%) and after harvesting (19.1%) in rice based CSA systems (mean of Sc3 and Sc5) over maize based CSA systems (mean of Sc4 and Sc6) in rhizospheric soil. On average, β-glucosidase activity was significantly higher in rhizospheric soils of rice based system over maize based CSA system. Before sowing of wheat, significantly higher (21.4%) acid phosphatase activity was observed in rhizosphere over bulk soils of maize based CSA system. Significantly higher alkaline phosphatase activity was observed before sowing of wheat in bulk soils of rice (25.3%) and maize (38.5%) based CSA systems over rhizospheric soils. Rice based CSA systems showed 27% higher FDH activity than maize based systems. Significant interaction effect was observed between the managements and enzymes. SOC played an important role in regulating the enzymes activity both in rhizosphere and bulk soil. Significant variation in AcP/AlP , Al3 and GMea was observed among the managements. Therefore, CSA managements are beneficial in improving enzyme activities not only in rhizosphere but also in bulk soil where residues are retained thereby may help in improving nutrient cycling. • Soil enzyme activities in rhizosphere and bulk soil were carried out with climate smart agriculture practices. • Residue retention and zero tillage improves enzyme activities in bulk soil. • Dehydrogenase and β-glucosidase activities were higher in rhizospheric soils of rice based system. • Urease activity was not affected by growth stages and climate smart agriculture practices. • SOC played an important role in regulating the enzymes activity in soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intensive tillage coupled with crop residue burning in rice-wheat (RW) system is a serious issue that causes soil degradation and environmental pollution. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is one of the main indicators of soil health and system's sustainability. Zero-tillage has been widely recommended as an alternative for improving carbon sequestration in soil under different ecologies. But the SOC sequestration is very inconsistent and varied as it depends on the crop management practices. This study was performed in the western Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP) of India where RW system contributes 40% to the total country's food grain basket; however there exists issue of its sustainability because of declining SOC coupled with open field crop residue burning. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of different management scenarios (Sc) namely Sc1 (conventional till rice-wheat cropping system; business as usual), Sc2 (partial climate smart agriculture (CSA)-based rice-wheat-mungbean system), Sc3 (CSA-based rice-wheat-mungbean system), and Sc4 (CSA-based maize-wheat-mungbean system) on SOC pools and biological properties after 4 crop cycles (year 2009–2013). Soil samples were collected from surface and sub surface layers (0–15 and 15–30 cm soil depth) after rice harvesting in 2013. Results showed that the SOC stock at surface layer was higher by 70% with Sc4 than Sc1 (16.2 Mg C ha−1) (P < 0.05). All the forms of carbon in different pools were higher (P < 0.05) with Sc4 and Sc2 over Sc1 at 0–15 and 15–30 cm soil depths, respectively. At surface soil SOC pools were found in order of Sc4 > Sc3 > Sc2 > Sc1 (P < 0.05). Higher lability index (LI) (2.1) and stratification ratio (SR) (2.5) of organic carbon were observed in CSA-based systems (Sc2 and Sc4). At surface layer (0–15 cm) the CSA- based scenarios (mean of Sc2, Sc3 and Sc4) showed higher (P < 0.05) enzyme activities viz. dehydrogenase (641 μgTPF g−1 24 h−1) and alkaline phosphatase (158 μg p-nitrophenol g−1), and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) (787 μg g−1) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN)(98 μg g−1) compared with Sc1. Higher value of the basal soil respiration (34%) was also observed with CSA-based scenarios (Sc2, Sc3, Sc4). Surface soil layer showed maximum counts of fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes in Sc4. MBC, fungal population and SOC were the most sensitive biological soil parameters identified through principal component analysis (PCA) which can be used for soil quality assessment. Therefore, medium term adoption of climate smart agricultural practices involving zero-tillage, crop establishment, residue management and crop diversification in rice-wheat system can significantly improve the systems productivity by improving SOC and soil biological quality. • Organic carbon stock was improved under climate smart agriculture (CSA) based cereal systems. • MBC, MBN, microbial population and soil enzymes were improved in CSA. • CSA practices enhanced the systems productivity. • MBC, fungal population and SOC were the most sensitive indicators identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Many Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) technologies fail to achieve their full potential impact due to low levels of adoption by smallholder farmers and difficulties in scaling CSA. This paper presents how small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can act as change agents for the uptake of CSA technologies where their business models may be seen as adoption and scaling mechanisms. Drawing upon our fieldwork in Punjab (India) during which over 100 respondents have been interviewed, critical issues and enabling factors for the business model of two types of SMEs, i.e. farmer cooperatives and individual service providers of climate smart technologies have been identified. Enabling factors supporting adoption are driven by scientific and practical evidence of CSA technologies, good partnership between SMEs and research institutes, good customer relationships and effective channels through farmers' field trials. Critical issues consist of distortive government subsidies on energy and the lack of market intelligence affecting the profitability of the business model. Scaling is enhanced through market intelligence and a favouring regulatory landscape. However, difficult socio-economic circumstances and distortive government subsidies limit the role of SMEs business model as mechanism for scaling. Highlights • Small and medium-sized enterprises foster scaling of climate smart agriculture. • Energy subsidies hinder business models in adoption of climate smart agriculture. • Market intelligence is key for business models to scale climate smart agriculture. • Youth forms a niche market for climate smart agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salinity affects phosphorus (P) fractionation and its availability in soil and thereby crop growth as well as yields. Therefore understanding of P transformation and availability in soil with use of different sources of P is crucial to adopt appropriate P management practices for improving productivity of saline soils. A field experiment comprising of four treatments replicated thrice was conducted for three consecutive years during 2012–15. Treatments consisted of control (Ct), recommended dose of N-P-K fertilizers at 60-30-30 kg ha − 1 (RDF-100%), municipal solid waste compost at 16 Mg ha − 1 (MSWC-16) and MSWC at 8 Mg ha − 1 + RDF-50% (MSWC-8 + RDF-50%) laid out in randomized complete block design. Among different phosphorous fractions across the years; saloid-P (S-P), iron-P (Fe-P), calcium-P (Ca-P) and occluded-P (Occ-P) increased markedly after 2012–13 with continuous increase in subsequent years in all treatments compared to Ct. However, MSWC-8 + RDF-50% produced significant increase in all P fractions, including Olsen-P, total-P (Pt) and inorganic-P (Pi), except S-P as compared to RDF-100%. Whereas, all P fractions progressively declined in Ct from 2012–13 to 2015, indicating continuous removal by mustard ( Brassica juncea ) and pearl millet ( Pennisetumglaucum ). MSWC-8 + RDF-50% also recorded 16 and 22% higher organic-P (Po) and alkaline phosphatase activity (ALPA), respectively during 2015 over 2012–13 in corresponding treatment. Soil organic carbon (SOC) increased with RDF-100% over Ct across the years as well as within year; however, the highest SOC (5.7 g kg − 1 ) was observed with MSWC-8 + RDF-50%. Mean soil salinity (electrical conductivity; EC) decreased by 38 and 25% with MSWC-8 + RDF-50% and MSWC-16, respectively relative to Ct (4.8 dSm − 1 ). Relatively better P availability and lower soil EC with MSWC-8 + RDF-50% and resulted significantly higher mean (of three year) grain yield of mustard (2.38 Mg ha − 1 ) and pearl millet (2.44 Mg ha − 1 ) over RDF-100%. Nevertheless, RDF-100% produced 11 and 15% higher mean grain yield of mustard and pearl millet, respectively than Ct. MSWC-8 + RDF-50% also resulted in higher P uptake by grain of both crops as compared to RDF-100%. Our results highlighted that integrated use of organic amendment (MSWC-8) and mineral fertilizers (RDF-50%) is beneficial option for improving P availability and crop yields under saline conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Sub-surface drip fertigation (SSDF) layered with conservation agriculture in rice-wheat rotation were studied. • Similar or higher grain yields, 40–50% irrigation water saving under SSDF compared to flood irrigated rice- wheat system. • Rice and wheat under SSDF needs 20% less N fertiliser to that under flood irrigation. • Higher net returns from SSDF system with laterals spaced at 67.5 cm compared to flood irrigated rice-wheat system. Abstract The future of the South Asia's rice-wheat (RW) production system is at stake due to continuously depleting aquifers and increasing pressure on underground water under projected climate change scenario. Conventional management factors such as flood irrigation, intensive tillage and residue burning are threatening sustainability of RW system. With increasing adoption of conservation agriculture (CA), sub-surface drip fertigation (SSDF) provides an exceptional opportunity for complementing irrigation water saving benefits. Presently, there is no research evidence on optimum spacing and depth for drip laterals in a CA (direct drilling and residue mulch) based RW system around the globe. This study was therefore, planned to evaluate effects of residue mulch, different spacing and depths of laterals for SSDF on crop yield, irrigation water productivity (WPi), nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and net returns for CA based RW system in a silt loam soil in northwestern India. Drip laterals were spaced either at 33.75 cm or 67.5 cm, and installation depths were 0, 15 or 20 cm beneath the soil surface and compared with conventional and zero tillage based flood-irrigated RW systems. Grain yield and irrigation water input in rice and wheat were generally similar under different SSDF treatments. Irrigation water savings were 48–53% in rice and 42–53% in wheat under combination of SSDF and CA compared to flood irrigation system. A similar trend in WPi was recorded in both the crops. Residue mulch contributed to higher irrigation water savings, wheat yield and WPi compared to no mulch. Both rice and wheat needed 20% less N fertilizer under SSDF system to obtain grain yields similar to that under flood irrigated crops. Net returns from SSDF system with 67.5 cm lateral spacing were significantly higher compared to flood irrigation system. In conclusion, SSDF system having laterals spaced at 67.5 cm and installed at 15 cm depth provides tangible benefits for substantial saving in irrigation water and energy and increasing NUE and net income for CA based RW system in South Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Established irrigation thresholds, for different growth stages of tilled DSR, to realize higher yield and water productivity in DSR. • Irrigation threshold of −15 kPa at all growth stages recorded better crop growth and grain yield. • Irrigations at −30 kPa up to the end of vegetative phase and −15 kPa thereafter in DSR, proved as safer irrigation threshold. • Best DSR treatment (irrigations at −15 kPa at all stages) did not match the yield potential of transplanted puddled rice (TPR). Abstract Water and labour scarcity besides increasing cost of cultivation in transplanted puddle rice (TPR) warrants to develop and adopt input use efficient and cost effective direct seeded rice (DSR) method of cultivation. Though DSR saves substantial amount of irrigation but there are contradictory observations on yield realization. Therefore, a two year field study was undertaken with the aim to develop efficient irrigation strategy for maximizing tilled DSR yield with minimum irrigation input. Total 08 irrigation strategies, based on 03 soil matric potential (SMP) levels (−15, −30 and −45 kPa) and their combinations based on crop growth stages, were evaluated for fine grain aromatic (Basmati) rice variety 'CSR30'. Responses of respective irrigation strategies were evaluated on crop water use and its components, biometric parameters and yield attributes and yield of DSR. Performance of DSR was also compared with standard TPR practice. Soil profile moisture content ranged from 32 to 39, 27–39 and 22–39% in −15, −30 and −45 kPa irrigation regimes, respectively. Irrigation input in DSR method of cultivation varied between 709–1541 mm as compared to 1807 mm of TPR. With different irrigation strategies, DSR grain yield and irrigation water productivity (IWP) varied from 1.72 to 2.89 Mg/ha and 0.19–0.24 kg/m3, respectively. Irrigation threshold −15 kPa at all stages in DSR produced the highest yield and crop water productivity (CWP; 0.48 kg/m3), but with lowest IWP. Irrigations at or below −30 kPa during initial phase (<90 DAS) and at −15 kPa during remaining period produced comparable yield with significantly higher IWP. Though TPR registered lower IWP (0.18 kg/m3) as compared to the best DSR treatment but recorded about 11% higher grain yield with significantly higher crop water productivity (0.58 kg/m3) than DSR. Water balance studies revealed better utilization of precipitation in DSR due to irrigations at more negative SMP. Overall, study suggests irrigation scheduling at < −30 kPa during initial phase and −15 kPa during the remaining crop season proved to be the optimum irrigation threshold for maximizing DSR yield with limited irrigation input. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Salt-induced soil degradation is a serious threat to global agro-ecosystems. • Application of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) improves soil sustainability and fertility. • MSW improves nutrient cycling enzyme activity in salt affected soils. • MSW have potential in reducing reliance on fertilizers and increasing crop yield. Abstract Salt-induced soil degradation is a serious threat to global agriculture which is responsible for diminished productivity of agro-ecosystems. Irrigation with poor quality water and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers to increase crop productivity creates salt accumulation in soil profile thereby reducing crop sustainability. High concentration of salts in soil inhibits plant growth due to low osmotic potential of the soil solution, ion toxicity and imbalance reduces nutrient uptake, crop yields. Low productivity of saline soils is not only due to salt toxicity or excess amounts of soluble salts but also lack of available mineral nutrients especially nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and soil organic matter. Hence, sustainable management of salt-affected soils are paramount importance to meet the demands of food grain production for an ever-rising population in the world. Recently, municipal solid waste has gained importance as an organic amendment for restoring soil fertility and finally contributing to productivity of salt-affected soils. This paper compares extant waste generation, their properties and standards pertinent to municipal solid waste in different countries and explores the unique recent history in some countries that shows high environmental regard and rapid changes and also suggests policy experiencing from high environmental regard and rapid changes from other countries, so that policy makers can propose new or revise current municipal solid waste standards for salt affected soils. Municipal solid waste compost improves soil biological, physical and chemical properties because of high soil organic matter and lower concentration of pollutants. Therefore, the use of municipal solid waste in salt-affected soils could be an alternative to costly chemical amendments as well as reduce the reliance on chemical fertilizers for increasing productivity of salt-affected soil. The municipal solid wastes significantly improve crop yields. However, further long-term experimental investigations are needed to re-validate the application of municipal solid waste compost in improving physical, chemical and biological properties and to step up organic fertilization use in a wide range of both saline and sodic soils. In future, research should be directed to address these issues globally to minimise ecological disturbances and to set environmental standards, and evaluate the feasibility of the policies in different countries and their impact on socio-economic conditions of local people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intensive tillage-based conventional cotton-wheat system (CWS) entails high production costs and has low crop and water productivity thereby threatening its sustainability in the north-western India. Conservation agriculture (CA) based management practices such as conservation tillage, permanent raised beds and relay planting have the potential to improve sustainability, profitability, and water use efficiency in CWS. A two-year (2013–2015) field experiment was conducted to evaluate CA based management practices such as zero tillage (ZT), permanent beds, relay seeding (RS) of wheat, seeding configuration, and integration of mungbean (MB) in terms of crop productivity, input use efficiency (water and energy) and profitability in the CWS system. Treatments included; permanent narrow (67.5 cm, PNB) and broad (102 cm, PBB) raised beds with cotton planted in the centre of beds, ZT narrow flats (67.5 cm, ZTNF) and broad flats (102 cm, ZTBF), and PBB with cotton planted on one side of bed and intercropped with MB (PBBc + MB) or no MB (PBBc). In the above treatments, wheat was relay seeded in standing cotton after second picking. In addition, conventional till (CT) CWS on flats was included as control treatment. PBBc + MB produced 37% and 10% higher system productivity (2 yrs’ mean) over CT and PBB, respectively. Relay seeded wheat on PBB produced 50% higher yield and required 40% less irrigation water compared to CT wheat in both the years. Mean system irrigation water productivity (WP I ) was 131% higher with PBBc + MB compared with CT. The energy input was 61% higher in CT compared to PBB but energy output was 21% higher with PBB than with CT. PBB and PBBc + MB recorded 52–54% higher energy productivity and 64–69% higher net returns compared to CT. In conclusion, PBB and PBBc + MB were the best options for sustainable CWS under similar soil and climatic conditions in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ways in which farmers implement conservation agricultural (CA) practices – which entail reduced tillage, maintenance of soil cover, and crop rotations – varies considerably in different environments, farming systems, and by the intensity with which farmers administer management practices. Such variability requires an efficient tool to evaluate the cost-benefit of CA, to inform agricultural policymakers and development priorities to facilitate expanded use of CA under appropriate circumstances. Rice-wheat rotation is the principal production system in South Asia (SA). Research has shown that CA can be promising in this rotation because of improved irrigated water, energy, and labor use efficiencies, in addition to the reduction in atmospheric pollution and potentially long term improvements in soil quality. Yield responses to CA are however varying across studies and regions. With a nine-year rice-wheat CA experiment in Eastern Gangetic Plains of South Asia, this study parameterizes the Environmental Policy Climate (EPIC) model to simulate five CA and conventional managements on the RW cropping system. Information from geospatial datasets and farm surveys were used to parameterize the model at the regional scale, increasing the management flexibility and range of localities in the simulation. Yield potential of the CAs in the whole SA was thereby explored by utilizing the model with various management strategies. Our results demonstrate how geospatial and survey data, along with calibration by a long-term experiment, can supplement a regional simulation to increase the model's ability to capture yield patterns. Yield gains from CA are widespread but generally low under current management regimes, with varied yield responses among CAs and environments. Conversely, CA has considerable potential in SA to increase rice-wheat productivity by up to 38%. Our results highlight the importance of applying an adaptive definition of CA, depending on environmental circumstances, while also building the capacity of farmers interested in CA to apply optimal management practices appropriate for their environment. • We combine long term experiment and regional gridded crop modeling to evaluate CA in South Asia. • Yield consequence from CA differs between simulations with and without management optimization. • Rice-wheat productivity could increase by up 38% under CA with optimal management. • This approach could be used for other cropping systems to facilitate the application of CA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Higher system productivity and efficiency possible through conservation agriculture. [•] Zero-till cereal system had superior performance than the conventional-till. [•] Maize is a potential substitute of rice in areas with shortages of labor and water. [•] Avoiding puddling and residue retention in rice saves 30% water with no yield loss. [•] Conservation agriculture had cumulative and likely long-term benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Higher system productivity and efficiency possible through conservation agriculture. [•] Zero-till cereal system had superior performance than the conventional-till. [•] Maize is a potential substitute of rice in areas with shortages of labor and water. [•] Avoiding puddling and residue retention in rice saves 30% water with no yield loss. [•] Conservation agriculture had cumulative and likely long-term benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To contain the COVID-19 pandemic, India imposed a national lockdown at the end of March 2020, a decision that resulted in a massive reverse migration as many workers across economic sectors returned to their home regions. Migrants provide the foundations of the agricultural workforce in the 'breadbasket' states of Punjab and Haryana in Northwest India.There are mounting concerns that near and potentially longer-term reductions in labor availability may jeopardize agricultural production and consequently national food security. The timing of rice transplanting at the beginning of the summer monsoon season has a cascading influence on productivity of the entire rice-wheat cropping system. To assess the potential for COVID-related reductions in the agriculture workforce to disrupt production of the dominant rice-wheat cropping pattern in these states, we use a spatial ex ante modelling framework to evaluate four scenarios representing a range of plausible labor constraints on the timing of rice transplanting. Averaged over both states, results suggest that rice productivity losses under all delay scenarios would be low as compare to those for wheat, with total system productivity loss estimates ranging from 9%, to 21%, equivalent to economic losses of USD $674 m to $1.48 billion. Late rice transplanting and harvesting can also aggravate winter air pollution with concomitant health risks. Technological options such as direct seeded rice, staggered nursery transplanting, and crop diversification away from rice can help address these challenges but require new approaches to policy and incentives for change. Unlabelled Image • An ex-ante analysis was done using geospatial tools on potential effect of labour shortage on rice-wheat system. • Food grain production loss due to labor shortage can be 23% from current levels of production. • Residue burning will exacerbate air pollution in winter and could coincide with an anticipated COVID resurgence in the fall. • India needs new strategies to use available technological and management innovations to address emerging constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]