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This paper analyzes the way speech-language therapists instruct and correct aphasic speakers regarding the pronunciation of linguistic items and model pronunciation through auditory, verbal, visual, and tactile resources, thus configuring it as an embodied, multisensory experience. The data analysis shows that correction of a patient's productions is first initiated by therapists audibly, through repetition of the target item with specific prosodic features, such as loudness and length. When this type of cue proves to be ineffective, therapists perform instructions and corrective demonstrations through visual and haptic cues: By using their body as an "instructional tool," they represent, with gestures and facial expressions, features of the target sound. They can also touch a patient's face to help them to correctly realize specific articulatory movements. This paper focuses on the hierarchy of embodied resources that are mobilized by therapists, in an ordered and incremental way, to model pronunciation. Moreover, it highlights the methods used to enhance patients' visual attention toward embodied resources and solve issues of bodily coordination. More broadly, this paper highlights the complex embodied nature of speaking and, by focusing on a pathological situation and a therapeutic setting, shows what participants treat as relevant for producing speech sounds in interaction. • Therapists correct aphasic speakers regarding the pronunciation of speech sounds. • Modelling of speech sounds is done through audible, visual, verbal and tactile resources. • Therapists use their body as "instructional tool" for representing features of the target sounds. • Bodily demonstrations are part of the instructional work. • Patients' visual attention is enhanced towards therapist's face. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals who score high in self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty (IU) tend to find uncertainty aversive. Prior research has demonstrated that under uncertainty individuals with high IU display difficulties in updating learned threat associations to safety associations. Importantly, recent research has shown that providing contingency instructions about threat and safety contingencies (i.e. reducing uncertainty) to individuals with high IU promotes the updating of learned threat associations to safety associations. Here we aimed to conceptually replicate IU and contingency instruction-based effects by conducting a secondary analysis of self-reported IU, ratings, skin conductance, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data recorded during uninstructed/instructed blocks of threat acquisition and threat extinction training (n = 48). Generally, no significant associations were observed between self-reported IU and differential responding to learned threat and safety cues for any measure during uninstructed/instructed blocks of threat acquisition and threat extinction training. There was some tentative evidence that higher IU was associated with greater ratings of unpleasantness and arousal to the safety cue after the experiment and greater skin conductance response to the safety cue during extinction generally. Potential explanations for these null effects and directions for future research are discussed. • Intolerance of Uncertainty (IU) is the tendency to find uncertainty aversive. • We examined how IU impacts (un)instructed threat acquisition/extinction training. • Multiple read-out measures were recorded. • No significant associations between IU and the read-out measures were observed. • There was weak evidence to suggest that IU altered responding to the safety cue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nature and culture work together to shape who we are. We are embedded in culture and are profoundly influenced by what those around us say and do. The interface between minds occurs at the level of explicit metacognition, which is at the top of our brain's control hierarchy. But how do our brains do this? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information in working memory (WM) is crucial for guiding behavior. However, not all WM representations are equally relevant simultaneously. Current theoretical frameworks propose a functional dissociation between 'latent' and 'active' states, in which relevant representations are prioritized into an optimal (active) state to face current demands, while relevant information that is not immediately needed is maintained in a dormant (latent) state. In this context, task demands can induce rapid and flexible prioritization of information from latent to active state. Critically, these functional states have been primarily studied using simple visual memories, with attention selecting and prioritizing relevant representations to serve as templates to guide subsequent behavior. It remains unclear whether more complex WM representations, such as novel stimulus-response associations, can also be prioritized into different functional states depending on their task relevance, and if so how these different formats relate to each other. In the present study, we investigated whether novel WM-guided actions can be brought into different functional states depending on current task demands. Our results reveal that planned actions can be flexibly prioritized when needed and show how their functional state modulates their influence on ongoing behavior. Moreover, they suggest the representations of novel actions of different functional states are maintained in WM via a non-orthogonal coding scheme, thus are prone to interference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using video-recordings from one day of a theater project for young adults, this paper investigates how the meaning of novel verbal expressions is interactionally constituted and elaborated over the interactional history of a series of activities. We examine how the theater director introduces and instructs the group in the Chekhovian technique of acting, which is based on "imagining with the body," and how the imaginary elements of the technique are "brought into existence" in the language of the instructions. By tracking shifts in the instructor's use of the key expressions invisible/imaginary/inner body or movement through a series of exercises, we demonstrate how they are increasingly treated as real and perceivable bodily conduct. The analyses focus on the instructor's attribution of factual and agentive properties to these expressions, and the changes that these properties undergo over the series of instructions. This case demonstrates the significance of longitudinal processes for the establishment of shared meaning in social interaction. The study thereby contributes to the field of interactional semantics and to longitudinal studies of social interaction. • Instructions of the Chekhovian acting technique to a group of novices are examined. • The 'inner body' as a creative resource becomes increasingly established as common ground. • The meaning of 'inner/invisible/imaginary body' is constituted and enriched over an interactional history. • Bodily practices are used to convey the meaning of imaginary objects and actions. • Factual and agentive properties of expressions change over the interactional history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geometries of visual and kinesthetic spaces were estimated by alley experiments. For the visual alley, 24 observers set rods that extended in depth so that they appeared 1) to neither diverge nor converge, 2) to be separated by the same lateral distance, or 3) to be perpendicular to the frontal plane. The separation of rods and the height of the observer's eyes were varied. Under each instruction, another group of 20 observers set the rods visually at eye level or kinesthetically without seeing the rods. We obtained these findings. First, the rods seen obliquely from above were set more accurately than the rods seen at eye level. Second, the visual settings were parallel to one another for small separation and were convergent to the observer for large separation, whereas the kinesthetic settings were divergent to the observer for the small separation and were convergent to the observer for the large separation. These differences between sense modalities were explained by the location of the egocenter(s) and the sensitivity to direction. Third, the visual or kinesthetic settings did not differ with instructions, suggesting that visual and kinesthetic spaces were Euclidean. Fourth, the visual angle of the near ends of the rods, plotted against that of the far ends, was described by Euclidean geometry, provided that the visual angle is exaggerated. Last, the kinesthetic angle of the near ends of the rods, plotted against that of the far ends, was not described by any simple geometry even when we assumed that the kinesthetic angle is exaggerated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper investigates instructions in the context of indoor climbing sessions involving blind and partially-sighted athletes. Within this sport setting, climbers with sight impairments are supported by sighted guides (in our data, trainers) who verbally instruct them during the climb. Drawing on data from élite-level training sessions, we analyse the production of the climb as a stepwise and sequenced accomplishment, cooperatively realized through the systematic distribution of action within the trainer-climber couple. The analytical focus is on the sequential and temporal coordination of the trainer's instructions with the progress of the climb. The analysis shows that the trainer systematically produces instructions to locate footholds and handholds before the climber starts moving, and that she subsequently assists the climber in reaching the holds by producing further instructions. The temporal coordination of the trainer's instructions with the climber's movement and her orientation to the tactile and proprioceptive resources available to the climber's perception prove there is attunement between the trainer and the climber's action. Finally, we draw conclusions about the socialization of perception which characterizes this setting. Data are in Italian. • Climbers with visual impairments are verbally guided during the climb. • The trainer assists the climbers during the accomplishment of each movement. • Verbal instructions are adjusted to the temporality of the climbers' movements. • The trainer orients to the climber's proprioceptive and tactile resources. • Temporality of instructions reveals the trainer's attunement to the climber's actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• There is no consistent approach for providing incentives and instructions to study participants. • Participants drove in a simulated vehicle with two levels of 'incentives' and instructions. • The incentives and instructions had no significant effect on behaviour in the driving simulator. • The combination of financial penalty and detailed instructions produced higher sickness ratings. • Results suggest findings from studies with different incentives and instructions are comparable. There are a number of factors which may influence the validity of experimental studies, including the incentives offered and the instructions provided to participants. These have been little-studied in the driving domain. The aim of this study was to investigate how manipulating these factors influenced participants' feelings of 'presence' (i.e. the extent to which they believed they were actually driving and not in a simulated environment). The findings showed that imposing a penalty system for poor driving performance and providing 'good driving' instructions did not significantly affect presence ratings. This has a number of plausible explanations, including research study participants' inherent need to perform well under test conditions and the small range of performance variability expected in a normal driving scenario. The financial penalty resulted in slightly slower speeds, although none of the participants drove excessively quickly, supporting the argument that study participants tend to perform diligently under test conditions irrespective of incentives or instructions. Participants in the penalty and instructions conditions gave higher ratings for negative effects (related to physically feeling unwell), suggesting that these conditions made them more aware of the physical symptoms of being in a simulator (but not that participants were actually experiencing more sickness). The results can be viewed positively in terms of reliability and generalizability across different driving simulator studies, as variations in study design (i.e. how instructions are delivered to participants and whether participants are paid to participate) do not have a significant effect on performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Instructing others to do something with an object is an ordinary practice that may involve embodied demonstrations. Based on a single case analysis of a "troublemaker" example we show how the instructor decomposes the general instruction into more mechanic steps that can be mimicked by the instructee. The example is chosen because it reveals some of the taken for granted knowledge involved in accomplishing an instruction. The case is from a video mediated civil service setting in Denmark. In this setting, it is often necessary for a citizen to use a locally present object, e.g. a printer, and this may require instructions from the employee who is physically located elsewhere. We show how the instructor within a sequence decomposes the instruction from indexical references to known practices for dealing with objects to a more simplified discernible step-by-step description orchestrated by mimicable embodied demonstrations. Thus, the paper contributes with new insights about two aspects of recipient design in instructions and embodied interaction specifically linked to a video-mediated setting. The study is based on 8 h of video recordings of video-mediated encounters and applies EMCA multimodal interaction analysis. • Drawing on EMCA the article explores practices of instructions related to object handling in video-mediated encounters. • These instructions may be complicated in this context, hence participants decompose instructions into smaller parts. • The article describes how the practice of decomposing is unfolded on a step-by-step sequence. • Based on >100 h of video data the article examines a single case where a participant is instructed in the use of an object. • The article shows how professionals produced actions that we propose to call Designedly Mimicable Embodied Demonstrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Dispatcher CPR instruction increases the odds of survival. However, many communities do not provide this lifesaving intervention, often citing the barriers of limited personnel, funding, and liability.Objective: Describe the implementation of a novel centralized dispatcher CPR instruction program that serves seven public safety answering points (PSAPs).Methods: Seven municipal PSAPs that did not previously provide dispatcher instructions implemented our program. Using a 30-min self-directed video, 84 PSAP dispatchers were trained to utilize a two-question protocol to identify and transfer suspected out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) cases to a central communication center. At this central communication center, a trained communicator delivered CPR instructions to the caller. The 26 central communicators were trained with a 2-h in-person didactic session followed by a 2-h practice session. We collected and analyzed data from recordings of communicator-to-caller interactions.Results: 169 calls were transferred to the central communication center. Of those, 106 needed CPR instructions and 56 of those callers performed chest compressions (53%). The county-wide EMS documented bystander CPR rate was 20% the prior year. The 63 remaining transferred calls were non-OHCA calls. Of the calls where CPR was needed and performed, 11 victims survived to hospital discharge (20%); the countywide survival rate was 12%.Conclusions: Using a central communication center for instructions allowed us to train and maintain a smaller group of communicators, leading to less cost and more experience for those communicators, while limiting the burden on PSAP dispatchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The ED personnel failed to give individual and clear discharge instructions so that the patients understood and remembered the instructions given when they got home. • Patients felt that ED personnel does not know enough of their background to give discharge instructions. • Patients felt that guidance sessions were too short and restricted. • Patients felt that they do not have a clear understanding of their discharge instructions at the moment of the call. Abstract Objective The objective of the study is to assess how well the emergency department (ED) personnel succeed in instructing the patient at discharge. Methods In November and December 2016 at Peijas Hospital ED, Finland, a structured questionnaire was conducted during a phone interview on patients the day after discharge. Results A total of 132 patients interviewed. Ninety percent had received discharge instructions from the ED staff, most of them (75%) about medication. Almost half of the patients (45%) were satisfied with the communication at discharge, those not satisfied (47%) felt that the staff did not know enough of their background to give discharge instructions. Of the patients, 20% thought that they did not have the opportunity to ask questions during the guidance session, and 41% thought that the session was too short and restricted. Some patients (20%) felt that the instructions were ambiguous, but 63% (83/132) felt they were able to follow them well or very well. Conclusion The pace of care in the ED is fast and duration of the stay is short. The patients must be able to take responsibility of their self-care. Failure to follow medical discharge instructions could lead to non-compliance. Attention should be paid to enhancing the quality of discharge instructing and the instructions provided by the ED personnel, as recurring visits and inquiry calls add to the ED workload. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract We explored the relationship between goal specificity, flow experience and learning outcomes in educational computer games (ECGs). Our first aim was to analyze how goal specificity affects learning performances and reading activities in an ECG. Our second aim was to assess the effects of flow experience on learning with an ECG. Concerning our first aim, results indicated that a nonspecific goal, as opposed to one that is specifically defined in the task, enhances comprehension, but not memorization. It also affects reading strategies, leading to less scrolling back. Concerning our second aim, results highlighted a beneficial influence of flow experience on both memorization and comprehension. We did not observe any effect of goal specificity on flow experience. The results for goal specificity are discussed with respect to the dual space and cognitive load explanations. The relevance of using flow experience to assess motivation in ECGs is also addressed. Highlights • We explored the links between goal specificity, flow and learning outcomes in ECGs. • A goal-specific effect was found for comprehension but not for memorization. • A specific goal produced more scrolling back, a suboptimal reading strategy. • Flow experience positively influenced memorization and comprehension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fear learning reflects the adaptive ability to learn to anticipate aversive events and to display preparatory fear reactions based on prior experiences. Usually, these learning experiences are modeled in the lab with pairings between a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) and an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US) (i.e., fear conditioning via CS-US pairings). Nevertheless, for humans, fear learning can also be based on verbal instructions. In this review, we consider the role of verbal instructions in laboratory fear learning. Specifically, we consider both the effects of verbal instructions on fear responses in the absence of CS-US pairings as well as the way in which verbal instructions moderate fear established via CS-US pairings. We first focus on the available empirical findings about both types of effects. More specifically, we consider how these effects are moderated by elements of the fear conditioning procedure (i.e., the stimuli, the outcome measures, the relationship between the stimuli, the participants, and the broader context). Thereafter, we discuss how well different mental-process models of fear learning account for these empirical findings. Finally, we conclude the review with a discussion of open questions and opportunities for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Patients with limited English language proficiency have indicated that they believe post-operative instructions written in their native language will improve comprehension over verbal translation alone, but the effect of this has not been previously studied. We hypothesize that providing written discharge instructions in Spanish for native Spanish speakers will improve comprehension regarding post-operative care after routine otolaryngologic procedures when compared to instructions written in English. Methods This prospective randomized controlled trial enrolled subjects who met criteria from June 2016 to November 2016. Subjects were Spanish-speaking parents and legal guardians of children undergoing tympanostomy tube insertion, adenoidectomy, and/or tonsillectomy. Subjects were given written discharge instructions in either English or Spanish. Both cohorts received standard verbal counseling in Spanish as well. Primary outcome was score on a standardized quiz assessing comprehension of discharge instructions. Patient satisfaction and preferences were secondary outcomes assessed through a survey. Participants underwent follow up one month after initial enrollment. Results Twenty subjects were enrolled, with ten receiving written discharge instructions in Spanish and ten receiving instructions written in English. There was no significant difference in comprehension scores between the two groups. Eleven participants completed the survey on patient satisfaction and preferences. Most subjects (91%, 10/11, p < 0.01 ) preferred written instructions in their native language and subjectively felt this would improve their comprehension. However, there was no significant effect on patient satisfaction. Conclusions Spanish-speaking patients indicate a strong preference for written discharge instructions in their native language, although there was no significant difference in short-term comprehension of instructions written in English vs. Spanish on objective evaluation. Accommodating these preferences may improve long-term comprehension and patient satisfaction, and ultimately build invaluable rapport between providers and patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Managing a complex assembly system includes understanding and supporting the operators’ information processes. This paper presents theory (intuition, flow and guidelines for information presentation) combined with case results. The aim is to find ways to pragmatically support intuition in complex assembly. Results indicate that training and education may be a big part of supporting intuition. Other ways to support intuition include creating instructions that support: filtering, realistic tools and explanations. It is also important to consider individual differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many consumers do not practice proper food safety behaviors when preparing food in the home. Several approaches have been taken to improve food safety behaviors among consumers, but there still is a deficit in actual practice of these behaviors. The objective of this study was to assess whether the introduction of food safety instructions in recipes for chicken breasts and ground turkey patties would improve consumers' food safety behaviors during preparation. In total, 155 consumers in two locations (Manhattan, KS, and Nashville, TN) were asked to prepare a baked chicken breast and a ground turkey patty following recipes that either did or did not contain food safety instructions. They were observed to track hand washing and thermometer use. Participants who received recipes with food safety instructions (n = 73) demonstrated significantly improved food safety preparation behaviors compared with those who did not have food safety instructions in the recipe (n = 82). In addition, the majority of consumers stated that they thought the recipes with instructions were easy to use and that they would be likely to use similar recipes at home. This study demonstrates that recipes could be a good source of food safety information for consumers and that they have the potential to improve behaviors to reduce foodbome illness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In faculties of medicine today, a growing number of medical procedures are taught in manual techniques workshops. These workshops leave the students only very little time to train. One solution to this problem would be to provide medical students with an opportunity to practice these skills by themselves thanks to online learning materials. In order to determine the instruction presentation medium best suited to complete this training, different formats were compared (video + audio, video + text, and photographs + text). Forty-eight students were required to do five sutures using one of these formats. Their performance was assessed by time measurements and measurements of the quality of the knots. For all of the time indicators, the results show that the videos were more effective than the photographs for the first trial. This trend was reversed for the following trials, where the performance levels recorded using the photographs were better than those using the videos. The quality of the knots, however, was systematically better with the photographs than with the videos for all of the trials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In electrophysiological experiments on visual pattern discrimination, decision difficulty was manipulated either via the physical characteristics of the test stimuli, or by changing the instruction given to the observer. Visual stimuli were rectangular matrices each composed of 100 Gabor patches having different orientations. Matrices differed in the number of Gabor patches with vertical, or horizontal, orientation. The observers' task was either to discriminate the dominant orientation or to detect collinear elements in the matrix. Relating task difficulty to performance, in the first experimental paradigm (detection of orientation) we obtained the conventional S-like psychometric function but in the second (detection of collinearity) the psychometric function showed a complicated U-curve. Matching between electrophysiological and psychophysical data and image statistical functions allowed us to establish the relative timing of the cortical processes underlying perception and decision making in relation to textural features. In the first 170ms after stimulus onset coding of the low-level properties of the image takes place. In the time interval 170-400ms, ERP amplitude correlated only with complex image properties, but not with task difficulty. The first effects arising from decision difficulty were observable at 400ms after stimulus onset, and therefore this is probably the earliest electrophysiological signature of the decision making processes, in the given experimental paradigm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feedback is commonly employed to enhance motor learning and performance. While numerous studies have investigated the causal effects of feedback on motor learning, an analysis of real-time feedback provided during training and competitive sporting environments is lacking. Therefore, the feedback provided by 12 boxing coaches to athletes between rounds of the 2015 Australian Boxing Championships was recorded and transcribed. The feedback statements were then analyzed according to three feedback variables that have been shown to be critical for optimizing performance: Attentional focus (external, internal, neutral), autonomy support (autonomy-supportive, controlling, neutral), and feedback valence (positive, negative, neutral). Collectively, 445 feedback statements provided during 25 bouts, of which 14 were won and 11 were lost, were analyzed for each of the three categories. Coaches provided on average 8 feedback statements per round. Excluding neutral statements, coaches delivered more internal (15%) compared with external focus feedback (6%), more controlling (53%) compared with autonomy-supportive feedback (6%), and more positive (29%) relative to negative feedback (12%). Furthermore, during winning bouts coaches delivered less internal (12% vs. 19%), less controlling (48% vs. 58%), and more positive (36% vs. 18%) feedback, when compared with losing bouts. These results demonstrate for the first time the type and frequency of feedback delivered during amateur boxing bouts. While these findings may or may not reflect causal relationships, it is interesting that feedback that has been found to enhance motor performance was more often used during winning rather than losing bouts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Repeated exposure to a conditioned stimulus can lead to a reduction of conditioned fear responses towards this stimulus (i.e., extinction). However, this reduction is often fragile and sensitive to contextual changes. In the current study, we investigated whether extinction of fear responses established through verbal threat instructions is also sensitive to contextual changes. We additionally examined whether verbal instructions can strengthen the effects of a context change.Methods: Fifty-two participants were informed that one colored rectangle would be predictive of an electrocutaneous stimulus, while another colored rectangle was instructed to be safe. Half of these participants were additionally informed that this contingency would only hold when the background of the computer screen had a particular color but not when it had another color. After these instructions, the participants went through an unannounced extinction phase that was followed by a context switch.Results: Results indicate that extinguished verbally conditioned fear responses can return after a context switch, although only as indexed by self-reported expectancy ratings. This effect was stronger when participants were told that CS-US contingency would depend on the background color, in which case a return of fear was also observed on physiological measures of fear.Limitations: Extinction was not very pronounced in this study, possibly limiting the extent to which return of fear could be observed on physiological measures.Conclusions: Contextual cues can impact the return of fear established via verbal instructions. Verbal instructions can further strengthen the contextual control of fear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Performance on speeded ability tests, in contrast to power tests, reflects an individual's ability to get answers correct and to do so rapidly. However, with speeded tests, overall performance scores represent some unknown combination of the individual's strategy toward greater speed or higher accuracy. Scoring methods, such as penalties for wrong answers, are often imposed to either encourage examinees to adopt a specific speed-accuracy tradeoff strategy, or to attempt to derive performance scores that ‘factor out’ such strategic differences. In the current study, baseline assessments of four perceptual speed and psychomotor ability tests were administered, along with three different instructional conditions (accuracy-emphasis, speed-emphasis, and balanced accuracy and speed). A general ability composite was derived from a battery of intellectual ability tests. Changes in speed-accuracy tradeoff emphasis resulted in a consistent pattern of changes in the g correlates of latency/completion time performance indicators and number of errors. Increasing emphasis on accuracy resulted in increasing g correlates with latency/completion time, and decreases in g correlates with error rates. Implications for construct validity of ability tests and for further consideration of the conditions of testing are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Conditioned fear may emerge in the absence of directly experienced conditioned stimulus (CS)--unconditioned stimulus (US) pairings. Here, we compared three pathways by which avoidance of the US may be acquired both directly (i.e., through trial-and-error instrumental learning) and indirectly (i.e., via verbal instructions and social observation).Methods: Following fear conditioning in which CS+ was paired with shock and CS- was unpaired, three separate groups of participants learned by direct experience (Instrumental-learning), were instructed about (Instructed-learning), or observed (Observational-learning) a demonstrator performing an avoidance response that canceled upcoming US (shock) presentations. Groups were then tested in extinction with presentations of the directly experienced CS+ and CS-, and either a novel CS (Instrumental and observational groups) or an instructed CS (instructed-group).Results: Similar to instrumental learning, results demonstrate that avoidance may be acquired via instructions and social observation in the absence of directly learning that an avoidance response prevents the US. Retrospective US expectancy ratings were modulated by the assumed presence or absence of avoidance. Overall, these findings suggest that instrumental-, instructed-, and observational-learning pathways to avoidance in humans are similar.Limitations: Alternative experimental designs would permit direct comparison between the pathways for stimuli with no prior experience of fear conditioning, and trial-by-trial US expectancy ratings would help track the modulation of fear by avoidance pathway.Conclusions: Instrumental-, instructed-, and observational-learning pathways of avoidance are similar. Findings may have implications for understanding the etiology of clinical avoidance in anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of fear conditioning, different psychophysiological measures have been related to different learning processes. Specifically, skin conductance responses (SCRs) have been related to cognitive expectancy learning, while fear potentiated startle (FPS) has been proposed to reflect affective learning that operates according to simple associative learning principles. On the basis of this two level account of fear conditioning we predicted that FPS should be less affected by verbal instructions and more affected by direct experience than SCRs. We tested this hypothesis by informing participants that contingencies would be reversed after a differential conditioning phase. Our results indicate that contingency reversal instructions led to an immediate and complete reversal of FPS regardless of the previous conditioning history. This change was accompanied by similar changes on US expectancy ratings and SCRs. These results conform with an expectancy model of fear conditioning but argue against a two level account of fear conditioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The deictic so accompanied by an embodied action in yes/no interrogatives. • Directing the addressee's attention to a candidate to be confirmed. • The use of so in responding to trouble marked in the prior turn. • Directing the addressee's attention to a solution. • Orienting to progressivity and action coordination in joint projects. This study examines the use of the German deictic expression so (roughly translated into 'like this' in English) accompanied by an embodied action in activities where participants have to jointly accomplish a project. The article is divided into two sections that contrast two different types of interactional work that is accomplished by the use of so + embodied action. Based on the methodological principles of Conversation Analysis, in the first section, I demonstrate that, when the deictic expression forms part of a yes/no interrogative turn, it indexes a candidate suggestion that requires the co-participant's confirmation for the participant to move on to the next action. By offering a candidate to be confirmed, participants project that their candidate might not be acceptable and that a correction might be relevant as a follow-up. The second section then deals with the use of the deictic expression as part of the correction. The deictic expression is used as a responsive action to a problem highlighted in the previous turn and the embodied action provides the solution. In both cases, the deictic expression and the embodied action are used by the interlocutors to accomplish action coordination in order to complete a joint project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internet-based survey data inform knowledge creation in research and justify work activities in organizations. While there are advantages to online surveys, this mode of administration comes with its own set of challenges. Survey respondents may engage in careless responding (i.e. insufficient effort responding or satisficing) by intentionally or unintentionally responding in a manner that does not accurately reflect their true sentiments. Careless responding can create psychometric problems even after correctly removing careless respondents (i.e. mischievous responders). This study aimed to improve survey methodology by preventing careless responding. Using a 3 × 3 between-subjects experimental design, we manipulated both virtual presence (none, animated shape, and virtual human) and type of instructions (anonymous, warning, and feedback). Indicators of careless responding were the dependent variables. Results showed that beyond characteristics of survey items, survey design elements can prevent careless responding. The effects of interventions differed by type of careless responding. Instructions, and the interaction of instructions and virtual presence significantly reduced careless responding, but not virtual presence alone. Virtual human presence increased the salience of instructions. Although currently effective, instructions warning of punitive consequences may create difficulty in recruiting participants. Future research should continue investigating non-aversive ways to prevent careless responding on Internet-based surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research indicated that stimulus–response congruency effects can be obtained in one task (the diagnostic task) on the basis of the instructed stimulus–response mappings of another task (the inducer task) and this without having executed the instructions of the inducer task once. A common interpretation of such finding is that instructed stimulus–response mappings are implemented into functional associations, which automatically trigger responses when being irrelevant and this without any practice. The present study investigated whether instruction-based congruency effects are also observed for a different type of instructions than instructed S–R mappings, namely instructed response-effect contingencies. In three experiments, instruction-based congruency effects were observed in the diagnostic task when the instructions of the inducer task specified response-effect contingencies. On the one hand, our results indicate that instruction-based congruency effects are not restricted to instructed S–R mappings. On the other hand, our results suggest that the representations that mediate these effects do not specify the nature of the relation between response and effect even though this relation was explicitly specified by the instructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We investigated the effects of instructions on postural–suprapostural interactions. [•] Three suprapostural tasks, that stress different areas of working memory, were used. [•] We found instructions significantly improve postural outcome measures. [•] The results suggest an external direction of attention may improve postural control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: An experiment evaluated a Signal Detection Theory (SDT) approach to olive oil tasting research within laboratory conditions akin to ecological tasting situations. Participants confronted a tasting situation in which olive oil concentration (0.4%, 0.8% or 1.6%) and instructions (lenient or conservative) were manipulated in a full factorial between-subjects design. Results were analyzed using a variety of measures of sensitivity and bias, both parametric and non-parametric, as well as robust statistics. Olive oil concentration only affected sensory processes while instructions only affected decision processes. Non-parametric indices of sensitivity A′ and bias B′D, and robust analysis of variance were, both conceptually and methodologically, the most suitable for separately measuring sensory and decision processes in the context of olive oil tasting. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An experiment was conducted to examine whether visual perspective has an effect on visuomotor imitation. The experiment presented varied visual perspectives in terms of spatial disparity between a model and an observer (model-observer-disparity) on six levels. Female participants were asked to imitate different arm movements presented in videos by animated models. These arm movements were elbow-extension-flexion movements with one (lower complexity) or three (higher complexity) reversals of movement direction. The results showed that model-observer-disparity affects spatial trajectories and velocities in the performance of motor imitations. The movements’ complexity did not affect orientation dependence. Due to the non-linearity of the data, it is questionable if orientation dependence can be at least partially explained by mental rotation processes or differential ideomotor effects. According to these results, high model-observer-disparity should be avoided when using visual instructions in visuomotor imitation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: To examine the associations between the guessing performance of 25 pharmaceutical pictograms and five sign features for naïve participants. The effect of prospective-user factors on guessing performance was also investigated. Methods: A total of 160 Hong Kong Chinese people, drawn largely from a young student population, guessed the meanings of 25 pharmaceutical pictograms that were generally not familiar to them. Participants then completed a questionnaire about their drug buying and drug label reading habits, and their demographics and medication history. Finally they rated five features (familiarity, concreteness, complexity, meaningfulness, and semantic distance) of the pharmaceutical pictograms using 0–100 scales. Results: For all pharmaceutical pictograms, mean and standard deviation of guessability score were 64.8 and 17.1, respectively. Prospective-user factors of ‘occupation’, ‘age’ and ‘education level’ significantly affected guessing performance. For sign features, semantic closeness was the best predictor of guessability score, followed by simplicity, concreteness, meaningfulness and familiarity. Conclusion: User characteristics and sign features are critical for pharmaceutical pictograms. To be effective, pharmaceutical pictograms should have obvious and direct connections with familiar things and it is recommended that pharmaceutical pictograms should be designed with consideration of the five sign features investigated here. Practice Implications: This study provides useful information and recommendations to assist interface designers to create and evaluate icons for pharmaceutical products and to design more user-friendly pharmaceutical pictograms. However, further work is needed to see how older people respond to such pharmaceutical pictograms. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Appropriate prioritization during dual-task walking is necessary to achieve task goals and maintain walking stability. We examined the effects of increased walking task difficulty on dual-task walking prioritization in healthy young adults. Walking under simple usual-base conditions was similar between equal-focus and cognitive-focus instructions, but these differed from walking-focus instructions, consistent with cognitive task prioritization. In contrast, narrow-base walking was similar between equal-focus and walking-focus instructions, but these differed from cognitive-focus instructions. This shift in prioritization with increasing walking task difficulty suggests that prioritization is dynamic and flexible. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper shows the application of generalized finite difference method (GFDM) to the problem of seismic wave propagation. We investigated stability and star dispersion in 2D. We obtained independent stability conditions and star dispersion of the phase velocity for the P and S waves. Also, P and S waves group velocity dispersion have been obtained. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The aim of this work was to analyze the effect of presentation format and instructions on the ability of people with intellectual disability to identify individuals they did not know and had seen only briefly. With this objective in mind, 2 groups of subjects with mild to moderate intellectual disability were shown a photograph of a person and, after a distracting task, were asked to identify that person in 2 line-ups (target-absent and target-present) with 6 photographs each, where 2 types of instructions (neutral vs specific, between-subject design) and 2 presentation formats (simultaneous vs sequential, within-subject design) for the line-up photographs were used. Each subject completed 4 trials. The results showed that, generally speaking, people with intellectual disability were capable of distinguishing the face of a person previously seen under all these conditions. There was a significantly higher incidence of false alarms, however, when the photographs were presented sequentially and when specific instructions were not given. With specific instructions designed to lessen the social desirability effect and increase motivation for the task, false alarms on the target-absent line-up were reduced. The results were discussed with a view to their applicability in legal and law enforcement contexts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The prepared reflex (PR) metaphor (Exner, 1879; Woodworth, 1938) suggests that stimulus–response (S–R) instructions held in working memory (WM) can lead to autonomous response activation without any practice. Cohen-Kdoshay and Meiran (2007) showed flanker compatibility effects immediately following the instructions (First Trials Flanker Compatibility Effect, FTFCE) and also showed that FTFCE was eliminated when participants had to hold an additional novel task rule in mind. They attributed the elimination of the FTFCE to WM load, but did not rule out multitasking and associated increased control demands as a possible alternative explanation. In the present experiment, the authors compared a no-load condition, a load condition involving a secondary task that was changed in every block (thus requiring WM) and a multi-tasking condition involving a secondary that remained the same throughout the experiment. The results show FTFCE without load and in the multi-tasking condition but no FTFCE in the WM load condition, establishing the critical involvement of WM storage capacity in the FTFCE. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Conversational recipe tellings are multi-unit turns with characteristic openings and closings. They are similar to narratives in several ways, but they are also like sets of instructions, and they tend to switch back and forth between the first person past tense of the former and the second person imperative of the latter at sequentially significant junctures. Recipe tellings routinely issue from narratives and segue into narratives in conversational interaction, requiring tellers to mark off the recipe portion in characteristic ways, including shifts in tense and person. In line with their status as sets of instructions for preparing food, recipe tellings constitute expert talk, presupposing shared background knowledge and interest, and containing technical vocabulary and references to ingredients, measurements, tools and procedures associated with specialized practices. Conversational recipe telling exploits conventions from written recipes: conversational recipe telling borrows its overall sequential order, presuppositions, vocabulary, measurements, and grammatical structures from written recipe texts. Recipe telling as shop talk among cognoscenti establishes individual identity and group membership, demonstrating shared practices and interests. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Rule finding is an important aspect of human reasoning and flexibility. Previous studies associated rule finding failure with past experience with the test stimuli and stable personality traits. We additionally show that rule finding performance is severely impaired by a mindset associated with applying an instructed rule. The mindset was established in Phase 1 (manipulation) of the experiment, before rule finding ability was assessed in Phase 2 (testing). The impairment in rule finding was observed even when Phase 1 involved executing a single trial (Experiment 2), and when entirely different stimuli and rules were used in the two phases of the experiment (Experiments 3–6). Experiments 4–6 show that applying an instructed rule in Phase 1 impaired subsequent (Phase 2) feedback evaluation, rule generation, and attention switching between rules, which are the three component processes involved in rule finding according to COVIS (). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The present study explored the performance, psychophysical properties, and potential limitations of the Labeled Hedonic Scale (LHS) in two different test conditions. The LHS was first compared against the 9-point hedonic scale in a psychophysical laboratory setting by having subjects evaluate two sets of taste stimuli with different size of hedonic ranges. Both scales showed equal discrimination power, but the LHS was more resistant to ceiling effects and its data satisfied the normality assumption for statistical analysis. In the second experiment, subjects with different levels of prior experience with the 9-point scale were recruited to evaluate juice samples and food item names in a large-scale consumer test, after receiving either common written instructions or detailed instructions emphasizing the use of the LHS. Improper use of the LHS (e.g. categorical ratings) was evident for those who received written instructions, especially among subjects who had previous experience with the 9-point scale. The present results support the efficacy of the LHS in various test settings, while highlighting the importance of providing adequate instructions to subjects to fully utilize its advantages. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, approximations of optimal evacuation instructions are analyzed. The instructions, consisting of a departure time, a destination, and a route, are for the evacuation by car of a population of a region threatened by a hazard. An optimization method presented in earlier research is applied on three different hazard scenarios resulting in an instruction set for each scenario. These instruction sets are different because of network degeneration caused by the different hazard scenarios. Analysis of the network occupancy during the evacuations as consequence of the instruction sets shows that the capacity is used in the scenarios for minimal 87%, 90%, and 87% for the period wherein the effect of the network degeneration is relatively small. Although the results are logical, no clear patterns are perceptible in the instructions leading to this network occupancy. This endorses to the viewpoint from the earlier paper, namely, that it is useful to apply an optimization method to create evacuation instructions instead of applying instructions set up by straightforward rules (like evacuating to the nearest destination). Furthermore, it shows the efficiency of this specific optimization method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Traffic simulation models are often used to support decisions when planning an evacuation. Scenario analyses based on these models then typically focus on traffic dynamics and the effect of traffic control measures in order to locate possible bottlenecks and predict evacuation times. A clear approach to incorporate traveler information and compliance behavior in evacuation modeling is however lacking. The consequence is that the impacts hereof are often insufficiently accounted for. In this contribution, we show how traveler information and compliance behavior are included in the evacuation model EVAQ by applying a hybrid route choice model and internalizing the generalized costs of deviating from the instructions. The impact of traveler information and compliance behavior is discussed using a case study describing the evacuation of the Rotterdam metropolitan area in the Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: Recent research has shown that internal (body-related) attention-focus instructions disrupt motor learning and performance, whereas paying attention to the environmental effects of movements (external focus) leads to better performance than an internal focus [see, for reviews, Wulf, G. (2007). Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 10 years of research. E-Journal Bewegung und Training, 1, 4–14.; Wulf, G., & Prinz, W. (2001). Directing attention to movement effects enhances learning: a review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 648–660.]. However, Beilock''s studies [Beilock, S. L., Bertenthal, B. I., McCoy, A. M., & Carr, T. H. (2004). Haste does not always make waste: expertise, direction of attention, and speed versus accuracy in performing sensorimotor skills. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 373–379.] suggest that an internal focus is detrimental in experts but not in novices. Because detrimental effects of consciously attending to movements have generally been measured by performance scores such as accuracy scores or reaction times, it remains unclear how internal and external attentional-focus instructions influence movement kinematics when learning a new skill. To fill this gap, the present study investigated attentional-focus effects on a biomechanical level. Methods: A video of an expert juggler demonstrating a two-ball juggling task was presented to juggling novices. Experimental groups were given either body-related (internal group) or ball-related (external group) verbal instructions or no attention-guiding instructions (control group). In the retention phase without attention-guiding instructions, the body-movement and ball-flight aspects of performance focused on in the verbal instruction were subjected to biomechanical analyses. Results and Conclusions: Juggling performance improved equally in all three groups. However, internally vs. externally instructed acquisition phases had differential effects on the kinematics of the upper body as well as ball trajectories when performing the juggling task. Remarkably, ball trajectories in the control group who received no specific attentional cueing were similar to those in the externally instructed group. This suggests that task-relevant information is picked up independently of instructions, and that external instructions provide redundant information. Internal instructions for object-related tasks, however, may confront novice learners with the need to process additional information. As a result, task difficulty might be unnecessarily enhanced in an observational learning setting. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: To use a patient-centered approach to refine warning labels promoting the safe use of prescription drugs among patients, regardless of literacy level. Methods: Ten discussion groups were conducted among adults recruited from a general internal medicine clinic and four adult education classes. Participants completed face-to-face cognitive interviews with literacy assessment to determine comprehension of the 10 most commonly used drug warning labels, followed by a discussion group that solicited feedback for revising text and icons. Results: In all, 85 adults participated; 56% had limited literacy skills. Feedback from discussion groups indicated that the majority of icons were confusing, used difficult language, and text and icons were often discordant. Participants sought actionable language in the most simple and concise manner. In comprehension testing, five of the warning labels reached a set standard of >80% comprehension; the remaining labels were revised and three others modified on patients’ request. A universal icon that conveyed ‘Caution’ was used for one label (“use only on your skin”) as patients were unable to agree on an acceptable visual representation. Conclusion: A patient-centered approach to designing consumer medication information could improve the comprehensibility of existing warning labels. Practice implications: Pharmacies should review existing drug warnings to assess adequacy among patients, particularly those with limited literacy. Pharmacists should confirm patients understand auxiliary warnings to support safe and effective use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Which kind of instruction helps children aged 9–14years interact efficiently with a mobile phone? Due to analogies between navigation in menu structures and the natural environment, three instructions providing different forms of spatial knowledge were under study: A step-by-step instruction featuring landmark knowledge of the menu functions to be selected, a diagram of the menu structure providing survey knowledge and a free exploration of the menu, also giving the children the opportunity to develop survey knowledge. Results show a superiority of the two instructions that provide survey knowledge, except for the youngest children aged 9–10years. This group showed to have lower spatial abilities and is therefore presumably not able to understand and integrate this type of knowledge. For those very young children, the landmark information given in traditional step-by-step instructions is more helpful. It is concluded, that simple diagrams of the menu structure can help children from 11years on to significantly ease their interaction with small menu driven devices. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective: To examine readability and formatting characteristics of consumer medication information (CMI) accompanying prescription medication samples. Methods: We collected the most commonly used prescription medication samples (n =100) from four out-patient clinics at a large teaching hospital in the Southeastern US. Seventeen percent of samples were not pills/tablets and of such diverse nature (e.g., injections, drops, and creams) that there were not enough in any category to draw conclusions. Therefore, our analyses were limited to 83pill/tablet samples, belonging to 11 drug classes (e.g., cardiovascular, and psychiatric). We noted if CMI was present, and if so we assessed it for how instructions were presented, reading level, text size, format/layout, and comprehensibility. Results: No CMI was present in 39 (46.9%) samples. In 19 (22.9%), CMI was contained in a package insert and in 25 (30.2%) it was printed on the medication package. Average reading difficulty of CMI was at the 10th grade level (range=6–15) using the Fry formula, and text point size was small (mean 9.9±2.2 on package inserts and 9.4±2.6 when printed on packages). Conclusions: Almost half of samples did not include any type of CMI. For those that had CMI, it was often written at a reading difficulty level higher than the average reading skills of American adults, and the format of most CMI was not optimal for comprehensibility. It is likely that many patients do not understand the instructions accompanying medication samples they receive from clinicians. Practice implications: Clinicians should be cognizant of the shortcomings of CMI accompanying medication samples and thereby, distribute them to patients with caution. Manufacturers too should consider revising CMI to comply with low-literacy guidelines. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: To examine the nature and cause of patients’ misunderstanding common dosage instructions on prescription drug container labels. Methods: In-person cognitive interviews including a literacy assessment were conducted among 395 patients at one of three primary care clinics in Shreveport, Louisiana, Jackson, Michigan and Chicago, Illinois. Patients were asked to read and demonstrate understanding of dosage instructions for five common prescription medications. Correct understanding was determined by a panel of blinded physician raters reviewing patient verbatim responses. Qualitative methods were employed to code incorrect responses and generate themes regarding causes for misunderstanding. Results: Rates of misunderstanding for the five dosage instructions ranged from 8 to 33%. Patients with low literacy had higher rates of misunderstanding compared to those with marginal or adequate literacy (63% versus 51% versus 38%, p <0.001). The 374 (19%) incorrect responses were qualitatively reviewed. Six themes were derived to describe the common causes for misunderstanding: label language, complexity of instructions, implicit versus explicit dosage intervals, presence of distractors, label familiarity, and attentiveness to label instructions. Conclusion: Misunderstanding dosage instructions on prescription drug labels is common. While limited literacy is associated with misunderstanding, the instructions themselves are awkwardly phrased, vague, and unnecessarily difficult. Practice implications: Prescription drug labels should use explicit dosing intervals, clear and simple language, within a patient-friendly label format. Health literacy and cognitive factors research should be consulted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The prisoner''s dilemma is much studied in social psychology and decision-making because it models many real-world conflicts. In everyday terms, the choice to ‘cooperate’ (maximize reward for the group) or ‘defect’ (maximize reward for the individual) is often attributed to altruistic or selfish motives. Alternatively, behavior during a dilemma may be understood as a function of reinforcement and punishment. Human participants played a prisoner''s-dilemma-type game (for points exchangeable for money) with a computer that employed either a teaching strategy (a probabilistic version of tit-for-tat), in which the computer reinforced or punished participants’ cooperation or defection, or a learning strategy (a probabilistic version of Pavlov), in which the computer''s responses were reinforced and punished by participants’ cooperation and defection. Participants learned to cooperate against both computer strategies. However, in a second experiment which varied the context of the game, they learned to cooperate only against one or other strategy; participants did not learn to cooperate against tit-for-tat when they believed that they were playing against another person; participants did not learn to cooperate against Pavlov when the computer''s cooperation probability was signaled by a spinner. The results are consistent with the notion that people are biased not only to cooperate or defect on individual social choices, but also to employ one or other strategy of interaction in a pattern across social choices. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

How quickly are instructions for a task translated into an effective task-set? If declarative working memory (dWM) is used to maintain a task's S-R rules until practice compiles them adequately into procedural memory, variables that affect retrieval from dWM should influence task performance while it is still dependent on dWM. Participants were trained on a series of 6-choice RT tasks, with a 1:1 mapping from object pictures to keys. In Experiments 1 and 2, an instruction phase - presentation of the S-R rules one by one -was followed by test trials. The phonological similarity of the objects' names significantly affected performance only during the first few encounters with the stimuli. Serial position effects were also consistent with retrieval from verbal dWM during those early trials. In Experiment 3, instruction onon the S-R rules was omitted, so participants had to learn the S-R mappings by trial and error alone; the effect of phonological similarity lasted longer, but still disappeared after a dozen encounters with each stimulus. Experiment 4 showed that instructions and just four trials of practice per S-R rule were sufficient to form a persisting representation of the S-R rules robust enough to interfere with later acquisition of a competing S-R rule after several minutes spent acquiring other task-sets. An effective and lasting task-set is rapidly compiled into procedural memory through instruction and early feedback; verbal dWM plays little role thereafter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Providing instruction for assembly tasks is essential in modern manufacturing industry, as well as in households for customers that buy products to be assembled at home. Recent technological developments might be able to assist in completing an assembly task faster and more accurately. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether performance and usability differs when instructions for an assembly task are presented on digital glasses versus paper.Methods: Participants (n = 63) completed one of three versions of an assembly task (between-subject-design) with LEGO® bricks: (1) with paper instruction (P), (2) with text instructions presented stepwise via digital glasses (GT), (3) with stepwise text and auditory instruction (in parallel) on digital glasses (GA). Outcome measures on performance were completion time and errors. Furthermore, usability was measured by the User Experience Questionnaire, the Standardized Usability Questionnaire, the Post-Study Usability Questionnaire, and cognitive processing skills were assessed by the Trail Making Test and different versions of the Eriksen Flanker Task. Analyses were adjusted for the confounding factors age, gender, experience with glasses and LEGO, and problems with instruction.Results: Findings indicate that task completion was faster with the paper instructions compared to both versions of instruction via digital glasses (GT, GA). We observed no difference in accuracy and usability between the instructions. "Novelty" was rated higher for instructions for both GT and GA, compared to P.Discussion: Results show that instructions on digital glasses may not always be more effective for assembly than the traditional paper-based instructions. Further studies are necessary to investigate whether effectiveness may depend on task complexity, target group, experience of the user with task and device, and how the information is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty (IU) is the tendency to find uncertainty aversive. There is a lack of empirical research on how IU modulates anticipatory responding during threatening contexts with different parameters of uncertainty.Methods: Exploratory secondary analyses were conducted on an existing data set (n = 45) to examine whether IU is related to a particular parameter of uncertainty during instructed threat of shock (i.e. certain shock, certain safety from shock, outcome uncertainty of shock, temporal uncertainty of shock).Results: Analyses revealed that IU was associated with larger auditory startle blink during the anticipatory period for the certain safety from shock condition relative to the certain shock condition.Limitations: The sample was relatively small.Conclusions: Individuals with higher self-reported IU may be more inclined to generalize threat to safety cues in the context of instructed threat of shock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]