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[Display omitted] • Imidacloprid-resistant N. lugens population rapidly adapted to resistant rice IR36. • Insecticide resistance-related genes nAChR - 7 - like and CYP4C61 contributed to the adaptation to resistant rice in N. lugens. • One avirulent/susceptible genotype and two virulent/resistant genotypes could be inferred from the corresponding alleles of genes nAChR - 7 - like and CYP4C61. • The virulent/resistant genotypes of N. lugens already existed in the wild in China with increasing frequencies along with insecticide usage. Preventing crop yield loss caused by pests is critical for global agricultural production. Agricultural pest control has largely relied on chemical pesticides. The interaction between insecticide resistance and the adaptation of herbivorous pests to host plants may represent an emerging threat to future food security. This study aims to unveil genetic evidence for the reduction in the profitability of resistant cultivars derived from insecticide resistance in target pest insects. An experimental evolution system encompassing resistant rice and its major monophagous pest, the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens , was constructed. Whole genome resequencing and selective sweep analysis were utilized to identify the candidate gene loci related to the adaptation. RNA interference and induced expression assay were conducted to validate the function of the candidate loci. We found that the imidacloprid-resistant population of N. lugens rapidly adapted to resistant rice IR36. Gene loci related to imidacloprid resistance may contribute to this phenomenon. Multiple alleles in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR)- 7 - like and P450 CYP4C61 were significantly correlated with changes in virulence to IR36 rice and insecticide resistance of N. lugens. One avirulent/susceptible genotype and two virulent/resistant genotypes could be inferred from the corresponding alleles. Importantly, we found that the virulent/resistant genotypes already exist in the wild in China, exhibiting increasing frequencies along with insecticide usage. We validated the relevance of these genotypes and the virulence to three more resistant rice cultivars. Knockdown of the above two genes in N. lugens significantly decreased both the resistance to imidacloprid and the virulence towards resistant rice. Our findings provide direct genetic evidence to the eco-evolutionary consequence of insecticide resistance, and suggest an urgent need for the implementation of predictably sustainable pest management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imidacloprid (IMI) pesticide has significant environmental and ecotoxicological pollution effects. Also, its high potential to enter the aquatic environment reveals the importance of early evaluation of the toxic effects of this compound. This study aimed to evaluate organ responses that can be associated with outcomes at higher levels of biological organization in fish. In this respect, the toxicity mechanism and recovery response process of IMI in rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss)' s different tissues (blood, brain, gill and liver) were analyzed with important biomarkers [(hematological indices (RBC, WBC, Hg, Hct, MCV, MCH, MCHC), antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, GPx, GSH), MDA, DNA damage (8-OHdG), apoptosis (caspase 3), AChE, TNF α, interleukin 6, Nrf-2, NF-kB activities, histopathological and immunofluorescence analyses (NeuN, BDNF, JNK and Nop10]. Exposure to different concentrations of IMI caused a decrease in RBC, WBC, Hg and Hct levels in O. mykiss. The effect of the same application on brain, gill and liver tissues was determined as inhibitions in antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT and GPx) and GSH level, inductions on MDA level, DNA damage, caspase-3, TNF α, IL- 6, Nrf-2 and NF-kB activities. As a result of three tissues' histopathological examination; the degeneration, necrosis and hyperemia in the brain and liver, adhesion, desquamation and inflammation in the lamellar epitheliums has been determined in company with stress-induced responses inducing DNA damage. In the reflection of this situation on histomap results, increases were recorded in BDNF and NeuN levels. In the recovery response, tissue damage profile and detoxification process were differentiated according to dose and marker, and it manifested itself with moderate and mild symptoms. These findings revealed that IMI-mediated oxidative stress was effective in the Nrf-2/GSH/NF-kB pathways, showing strong hemato/hepato, and neurotoxic effects. It has become clear that the severity of the effects caused by IMI exposure is felt more in the brain and liver tissues, and that such contaminants should be taken into account in the risk assessment. During the post-exposure recovery period (after 15 days), AChE activity increased by 21% at high-dose administration. The recovery period was effective in regulating the oxidant/antioxidant balance of the organism by exhibiting serious induction/inhibition in each tissue and biomarker performance. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insecticides are vital for safeguarding agricultural crops against pests, albeit many lack selectivity towards pest species and are poorly bio-degradable. This leads to targeting of beneficial organisms like pollinators and widespread environmental contamination of soil and water. Exposure to insecticides such as neonicotinoids causes insect paralysis and mortality at higher doses, while sublethal doses can disrupt other functions that are crucial for survival such as learning and memory performance. Potent and selective arachnid venom peptides affecting a variety of molecular targets are being explored as bioinsecticide candidates. However, their effect on insect learning is poorly understood. We therefore established a sucrose-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) assay using Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies to provide a means of evaluating how various classes of insecticidal compounds interact with insect memory to assess their broader ecological consequences. Our results confirmed the adverse effect of a sublethal dose of the neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid (20 pg/fly) on fly CPP formation upon daily injection during the conditioning phase. However, imidacloprid did not affect CPP retrieval when applied after the conditioning phase. Sublethal doses of the two insecticidal spider venom peptides μ-DGTX-Dc1a (Dc1a; 70 pg/fly) and U1-AGTX-Ta1a (Ta1a; 125 pg/fly) had no effect on either CPP formation or retrieval, underlining their potential as novel and safe bioinsecticide candidates. [Display omitted] • Some insecticides have been reported to negatively affect insect memory even at sublethal doses. • We established a sucrose conditioned place preference (CPP) assay to study contextual memory in Drosophila melanogaster. • Our CPP assay confirmed previously reported negative effects of the neonicotinoid iimidacloprid on fruit fly contextual memory. • Two insecticidal spider venom peptides Dc1a and Ta1a did not affect contextual memory in fruit flies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of nanopestcide carriers with high foliage adhesion remains a challenging task. Erythrocytes are double concave disc structure with thinner center and thicker rim and erythrocyte-like carriers would present enhanced foliar affinity. In this study, we fabricated novel rough-surfaced erythrocyte-like carriers for pesticide delivery. Firstly, erythrocyte-like silica (ES) nanoparticles were prepared by sol-gel method. Subsequently, the ES nanoparticles were further hydrothermal treated to obtain rough-surfaced iron-doped hollow ES (Fe-EHS) nanocarriers. The Fe-EHS nanocarriers could increase contact area and form a topological effect between the pesticide carriers and the micro/nanostructures on plant foliage, effectively enhancing the retention and rain fastness on foliage. Fe-EHS nanocarriers presented a loading capacity of 38.1 % for imidacloprid (IMI). After loading IMI, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was encapsulated to generate nanopesticide delivery system (IMI@Fe-EHS-CMC). The obtained IMI@Fe-EHS-CMC exhibited good foliar adhesion, biosafety, and excellent UV shielding. Additionally, the IMI@Fe-EHS-CMC system possessed pH/cellulase responsive release behavior and could be bidirectionally transported through vascular bundles in tobacco plants. Furthermore, the IMI@Fe-EHS-CMC system showed potent insecticidal activity. This work offers valuable insights for enhancing the effective utilization of pesticides. • Erythrocyte-like iron-doped hollow silica (Fe-EHS) carriers were prepared by sol-gel method and hydrothermal treated. • Carboxymethyl cellulose coated Fe-EHS carriers were successfully established for pesticide delivery. • IMI@Fe-EHS-CMC displayed improving foliage adhesion and wettability. • IMI@Fe-EHS-CMC possessed excellent dual-responsive pH and cellulase properties. • IMI@Fe-EHS-CMC had higher insecticidal activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overuse of pesticides has shown their malpractices. Novel and sustainable formulations have consequently attracted abundant attention but still appear to have drawbacks. Here, we use a maleic anhydride-functionalized cellulose nanocrystals-stabilized Pickering emulsions template to prepare thermo-responsive microcapsules for a pesticide delivery system via radical polymerization with N-isopropyl acrylamide. The microcapsules (MACNCs- g -NIPAM) are characterized by the microscope, SEM, FTIR, XRD, TG-DTG, and DSC techniques. Imidacloprid (IMI) is loaded on MACNCs- g -NIPAM to form smart release systems (IMI@MACNCs- g -NIPAM) with high encapsulation efficiency (~88.49%) and loading capability (~55.02%). The IMI@MACNCs- g -NIPAM present a significant thermo-responsiveness by comparing the release ratios at 35°C and 25°C (76.22% vs 50.78%). It also exhibits advantages in spreadability, retention and flush resistance on the leaf surface compared with the commercial IMI water-dispersible granules (CG). IMI@MACNCs- g -NIPAM also manifest a significant advantage over CG (11.12 mg/L vs 38.90 mg/L for LC 50) regarding activity tests of targeted organisms. In addition, IMI@MACNCs- g -NIPAM has shown excellent biocompatibility and low toxicity. All the benefits mentioned above prove the excellent potential of IMI@MACNCs- g -NIPAM as a smart pesticide formulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coexistence of pesticides and plastic film residues in agricultural soils poses a significant threat to soil organisms due to their potential long-term contamination and combined toxic effects. Specifically, earthworms are at risk of simultaneously ingesting residual pesticides and microplastics, yet the impact of this combined exposure on their intestinal health and function remains poorly understood. In this study, earthworm (Eisenia fetida) were single and combined exposed to three particle sizes (10 μm, 500 μm, and 2 mm) of polyethylene microplastics (PE MPs) and imidacloprid (IMI) for 28 days, respectively. Our findings underscore that compared to single exposures, the combined exposure inflicted more profound injuries on intestinal tissues and elicited a heightened activation of intestinal digestive enzymes. Furthermore, the combined exposure significantly perturbed the relative abundance of several pivotal metabolic-associated gut microbiota, fostering an enrichment of pathogenic species. Metabolomics analysis showed combined exposure increased differential metabolites, disrupting amino acid, fatty acid, and carbohydrate metabolism in earthworm intestines, potentially hindering nutrient absorption and causing toxic metabolite accumulation. An integrated omics analysis implies that combined exposures have the potential to disrupt the relative abundance of crucial gut microbiota in earthworms, thereby altering their intestinal metabolism and subsequently impacting intestinal health and functionality. Overall, the results reveal that combined exposure of IMI and PE MPs exacerbate the negative effects on earthworm gut health, and this study holds significant implications for the holistic understanding of the combined toxic effects of microplastics and pesticide on soil ecosystems. [Display omitted] • Microplastics and imidacloprid co-exposure exacerbate negative effects on earthworm gut health. • Co-exposure significantly altered gut bacterial communities, increasing pathogenic species. • Co-exposure interfered with the amino acids, fatty acids and carbohydrates metabolic pathways. • The disruption of intestinal microbia and metabolites might be the mechanism of intestinal damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The R ct value of Ti 4 O 7 -C 3 N 4 (5.445 Ω·cm2) was reduced by 66.05 % compared with Ti 4 O 7. • The degradation ratio of IMD with Ti 4 O 7 -C 3 N 4 was as high as 99.18 % in 1.256 min. • The removal of IMD in the actural Wanjiang water with Ti 4 O 7 -C 3 N 4 was up to 81.12 %. Imidacloprid (IMD) is a kind of neonicotinoid insecticide, which is widely used in the agricultural production. There are few reports on electrocatalytic degradation of IMD with the low concentration. In this study Ti 4 O 7 -C 3 N 4 electrode was employed for the first time to electrocatalytically degrade low concentration IMD. Compared with pure Ti 4 O 7 electrode, the oxygen evolution potential was increased from 1.84 V to 2.50 V, the charge transfer resistance (R ct) was reduced by 66.05 %, and the oxygen vacancies were increased by 2.5 times compared to the original Ti 4 O 7. Especially, the R ct for Ti 4 O 7 (5.45 Ω·cm2) was only 1/7 of that for boron-doped diamond (BDD) (38.89 Ω·cm2). IMD degradation ratio was up to 98 % in only 1.256 min (75.360 s) using a Ti 4 O 7 -C 3 N 4. When SongShan Lake water, Wanjiang water, and secondary effluent were treated, the degradation radios of IMD were 70.30 %, 72.33 % and 81.12 %, respectively. In the presence of Cl− coexisting ions, no disinfection by-product of ClO 4 − was detected, which is an advantage for Ti 4 O 7 -C 3 N 4 compared with BDD. The first and 48th degradation ratios were 99 % and 97 %, respectively, indicating the good stability of Ti 4 O 7 -C 3 N 4. The development of Ti 4 O 7 -C 3 N 4 provides a stable, low energy consumptions and no secondary pollution anode for the treatment of actual wastewater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imidacloprid (IMI), the most widely used worldwide neonicotinoid biocide, produces cognitive disorders after repeated and single treatment. However, little was studied about the possible mechanisms that produce this effect. Cholinergic neurotransmission regulates cognitive function. Most cholinergic neuronal bodies are present in the basal forebrain (BF), regulating memory and learning process, and their dysfunction or loss produces cognition decline. BF SN56 cholinergic wild-type or acetylcholinesterase (AChE), β-amyloid-precursor-protein (βAPP), Tau, glycogen-synthase-kinase-3-beta (GSK3β), beta-site-amyloid-precursor-protein-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), and/or nuclear-factor-erythroid-2-related-factor-2 (NRF2) silenced cells were treated for 1 and 14 days with IMI (1 μM–800 μM) with or without recombinant heat-shock-protein-70 (rHSP70), recombinant proteasome 20S (rP20S) and with or without N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) to determine the possible mechanisms that mediate this effect. IMI treatment for 1 and 14 days altered cholinergic transmission through AChE inhibition, and triggered cell death partially through oxidative stress generation, AChE-S overexpression, HSP70 downregulation, P20S inhibition, and Aβ and Tau peptides accumulation. IMI produced oxidative stress through reactive oxygen species production and antioxidant NRF2 pathway downregulation, and induced Aβ and Tau accumulation through BACE1, GSK3β, HSP70, and P20S dysfunction. These results may assist in determining the mechanisms that produce cognitive dysfunction observed following IMI exposure and provide new therapeutic tools. [Display omitted] • IMI induces cell death on basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. • IMI induces cell death through AChE-S, HSP70, and P20S disruption and Aβ/Tau accumulation. • IMI decreases ACh levels through AChE activity inhibition. • IMI induces oxidative stress through ROS production and NRF2 pathway downregulation. • IMI induces Aβ and Tau accumulation through BACE1, GSK3β, HSP70, and P20S disruption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • IMI undergoes gas phase degradation by HO within 2.47–5.04 h. • Within 253–323 K, the k overall decreased from 4.35 × 1010 to 2.13 × 1010 M−1 s−1. • The k overall (cal) aligns well with the k overall (exp) at different pH levels. • At all pH levels, the HO + IMI reaction in water produces toxic chemical species. • The products may exhibit carcinogenic/mutagenic hazards with low biodegradability. Imidacloprid (IMI) is a common neonicotinoid pesticide that acts via a similar mechanism of action to nicotine, a naturally occurring insecticide. It is therefore important to understand its chemical fate in the environment. Hydroxyl radicals (HO) are significant oxidizing species in natural aquifers due to their strong reactivity towards organic substrates. Therefore, principal photo-oxidation products are expected to form with the involvement of HO in the self-cleaning process of water in nature. Here quantum chemical calculations are used to examine the reaction of IMI with HO in the atmosphere and aqueous environments. It was found that the principal mechanism of the HO + IMI reaction is the hydrogen transfer that, in a two-step process, produces stable cations in the gas phase. Within the atmospheric temperature range of 253–323 K, the overall rate constants for the HO + IMI reaction decreased from 4.35 × 1010 to 2.13 × 1010 M−1 s−1. Consequently, IMI can undergo rapid gaseous degradation within a comparatively brief period of 2.81 × 10−4 – 5.75 × 10−4 years. However, differences in environmental temperature and pH in aqueous environments influence the processes, rate constants, and products of IMI breakdown by the HO radical. The data indicate that IMI breakdown by OH radicals is strongly temperature and pH-dependent, resulting in the generation of different reaction products. The results imply that at all pH levels, the interaction between IMI and the ambient HO radical in water produces toxic chemical species. According to the computed data, it appears that IMI and the vast majority of degradation products present potentially carcinogenic and/or mutagenic hazards, and they also lack downstream biodegradability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), are characterized by persistent changes in communication and social interaction, as well as restricted and stereotyped patterns of behavior. The complex etiology of these disorders possibly combines the effects of multiple genes and environmental factors. Hence, exposure to insecticides such as imidacloprid (IMI) has been used to replicate the changes observed in these disorders. Lutein is known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and is associated with neuroprotective effects. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the protective effect of lutein-loaded nanoparticles, along with their mechanisms of action, on Drosophila melanogaster offspring exposed to IMI-induced damage. To simulate the neurodevelopmental disorder model, flies were exposed to a diet containing IMI for 7 days. Posteriorly, their offspring were exposed to a diet containing lutein-loaded nanoparticles for a period of 24 h, and male and female flies were subjected to behavioral and biochemical evaluations. Treatment with lutein-loaded nanoparticles reversed the parameters of hyperactivity, aggressiveness, social interaction, repetitive movements, and anxiety in the offspring of flies exposed to IMI. It also protected markers of oxidative stress and cell viability, in addition to preventing the reduction of Nrf2 and Shank3 immunoreactivity. These results demonstrate that the damage induced by exposure to IMI was restored through treatment with lutein-loaded nanoparticles, elucidating lutein's mechanisms of action as a therapeutic agent, which, after further studies, can become a co-adjuvant in the treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as ASD and ADHD. [Display omitted] • Progeny exposed to imidacloprid shows behavioral changes similar to ASD and ADHD. • Lutein-loaded nanoparticles reverse the damage caused to the progeny by imidacloprid. • Lutein-loaded nanoparticles reverse oxidative damage in male and female flies. • Lutein-loaded nanoparticles reverse reduced NRF2 and Shank3 immunoreactivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The blueberry gall midge, Dasineura oxycoccana , is a major blueberry pest in Florida and North America, primarily controlled with insecticides. However, their efficacy on D. oxycoccana and impact on natural enemies are poorly documented. We compared the effects of seven reduced-risk insecticides with malathion on larval and adult D. oxycoccana in laboratory bioassays. Acetamiprid showed the highest larval mortality, similar to malathion. Imidacloprid was effective after 2 h, while spirotetramat was effective after 3 h. On adults, cyantraniliprole and acetamiprid were as effective as malathion. Flupyradifurone began showing comparable lethality at 3 h, while spirotetramat, imidacloprid, and tolfenpyrad began inducing comparable mortality 6 h post-application. The same insecticides were evaluated for their effects on D. oxycoccana and their key parasitoids in two southern highbush blueberry plantings in North-central and Central Florida. A wetter-spreader adjuvant was added to spirotetramat as a ninth treatment. Spirotetramat + adjuvant effectively reduced adults and larval densities by up to 100% in the first year and adults by 59% and larvae by 56% in the second year. Acetamiprid reduced adult densities by 65% in 2019. Spinetoram reduced adults by 77% and larvae by 100% in 2019, while flupyradifurone reduced adults by 77% and larvae by 37% in 2020. These insecticides had minimal adverse effects on Platygaster spp. and overall parasitoid densities for both years. Based on these findings, there is potential for incorporating spirotetramat + adjuvant, flupyradifurone, spinetoram, or acetamiprid into a strategic rotational program with minimal impacts on natural enemies of D. oxycoccana. [Display omitted] • Acetamiprid, cyantraniliprole reduced adult D. oxycoccana in residual exposure. • Acetamiprid reduced larval D. oxycoccana in contact exposure. • In field, spirotetramat + adjuvant, flupyradifurone, spinetoram reduced adults, larvae. • In field, spirotetramat + adjuvant, acetamiprid, spinetoram spared Platygaster spp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Biogenic activated carbon with a strong affinity for neonicotinoid pesticides. • Continuous adsorption of multicomponent solutions using sludge-derived materials. • Mesopority of the novel material promoted adsorption kinetics. • FBU values reaching up to 71%, compared to 7–8% for commercial adsorbent. • Regeneration of the fixed bed for reuse was successfully accomplished. The environmental impact of pesticides, together with the increasing regulatory framework on sewage sludge disposal, has raised a great political and social concern. Neonicotinoid pesticides, such as imidacloprid (IMD), thiamethoxam (THM), and acetamiprid (ACT), have been included among the main emerging pollutants on the latest EU Watch Lists derived from Directive 2008/105/EC. This research aims at valorising an industrial sludge through the synthesis of a biogenic activated carbon for the continuous adsorption of the aforementioned plaguicides from multicomponent aqueous solutions. AC-Industrial2 was prepared by combining chemical and physical activation, resulting in a mesoporous material with a high surface area (S BET = 750 m2∙g−1) and a strong affinity for the micropollutants tested. The sludge-derived adsorbent achieved maximum adsorption capacity values at equilibrium of 124.3, 124.4 and 153.1 mg∙g−1 for ACT, THM and IMD, respectively. Therefore, this material not only presented similar removal yields to those obtained with the commercial material (AC-F400), but also it considerably favoured the adsorption kinetics due to its great mesoporosity contribution. The best fitting of experimental kinetic data was found by using pseudo-first order model, while Freundlich model successfully fitted most of the equilibrium adsorption isotherms. The breakthrough behaviour of the multicomponent fixed-bed system for AC-Industrial2 was related to the pesticides' hydrophobicity, rather than the molecular volume of the pollutants. Additionally, an overshooting phenomenon was noticed for the weakest adsorbable components (THM and ACT). The sorbent developed in this work allowed a bed utilisation in the range 51–67.2 %, whereas the commercial material led to values between 7.0 and 8.3 %. This fact, together with the complete and efficient regeneration of the novel material by a Fenton process, highlighted its excellent reusability and stability for scale-up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ultrathin porous g-C 3 N 4 tubes with three-coordinated nitrogen vacancies work to remarkably degrade pesticide contaminants under photocatalysis coupling peroxymonosulfate activation system. [Display omitted] • Ultrathin porous g-C 3 N 4 tubes with three-coordinated nitrogen (N b) vacancies was successfully constructed. • Prepared g-C 3 N 4 achieves a remarkable 100% degradation of imidacloprid within 20 min under the PC-PMS system. • Engineering N b vacancies and ultrathin porous architecture achieve the enhanced photogenerated carrier utilization and enriched active sites. • The study achieve the efficient utilization of electron-hole pairs conversion to ∙O 2 – and 1O 2 for the removal of imidacloprid in PC-PMS system. Precise morphology and vacancy engineering is a promising strategy to enhance the degradation performance of refractory contaminants in photocatalysis coupling peroxymonosulfate activation (PC-PMS) systems. In this context, we developed ultrathin porous g-C 3 N 4 tubes with three-coordinated nitrogen (N b) vacancies between the heptazine units through hydrogen intercalated exfoliation and selective nitrogen removal at high temperatures. The ultrathin porous tubular architecture provides an ultrahigh-specific surface area with abundant exposed active sites, ensures effective mass transfer, and shortens the diffusion distance of photogenerated carriers. The N b vacancies act as unsaturated sites, inhibiting the photogenerated carrier's recombination and facilitating the adsorption/activation of O 2 and its conversion to ∙O 2 – via photogenerated electrons. Then, the PMS is subsequently oxidated by photogenerated holes selectively producing 1O 2. Together, these continuously released free radicals unlock the complete degradation of imidacloprid within 20 min in the PC-PMS system, with a degradation rate about 350 % higher than conventional g-C 3 N 4 tubes and 10-fold that of pristine g-C 3 N 4. This study provides a novel insight into the efficient utilization of photogenerated electron-hole pairs conversion to ∙O 2 – and 1O 2 for the removal of pesticide contaminants through the rational design of photocatalysts in the PC-PMS system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pesticides, including insecticides and fungicides, are major contaminants in the effluent from intensive agricultural systems, such as greenhouses. Because of their constant use and persistence, some pesticides can accumulate in soil and/or run off into adjacent waterways. Microbial communities in soil can degrade some pesticides, and bioreactors with enhanced microbial communities have the potential to facilitate decontamination before the effluent is released into the environment. In this study, we sampled the soil along a gradient from immediately below greenhouses, into, through and below a bioreactor. Multi-analyte pesticide screening was undertaken along with shotgun metagenomic sequencing, to assess microbial community taxonomic profiles and metabolic pathway responses for functional analysis. Two insecticides (imidacloprid and fipronil) and nine fungicides were identified in the soil samples, with a general decrease in most pesticides with increasing distance from the greenhouses. Diversity indexes of taxonomic profiles show changes in the microbial community along the gradient. In particular, microbial communities were significantly different in the bioreactor, with lower Shannon diversity compared to immediately below the greenhouses, in the channels leading into the bioreactor and further downstream. Metabolic pathway analysis revealed significant changes in a wide range of core housekeeping genes such as protein/amino acid synthesis and lipid/fatty acid biosynthesis among the sampling sites. The result demonstrates that the composition and potential functional pathways of the microbial community shifted towards an increased tendency for phytol and contaminant degradation in the bioreactor, facilitated by high organic matter content. This highlights the potential to use enhanced microbial communities within bioreactors to reduce contamination by some pesticides in sediment receiving run-off from greenhouses. [Display omitted] • Enhanced microbial communities in bioreactors can be used to degrade pesticides. • Nine fungicides and two insecticides were detected in soil below greenhouses. • Pesticides decreased along a gradient into and below the bioreactor. • The bioreactor had a distinct microbial community with different metabolic activity. • Metabolic pathway analysis indicated some capacity for microbial degradation of pesticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using zinc-aluminum layered double hydroxides-laponite (LDH-LAP) complex as matrix, with the assistance of zwitterionic surfactants of hexadecyl dimethyl sulfobetaine (SB) and dodecyl dimethyl carboxyl betaine (DCB), the pesticides beta-cypermethrin (BCT) and imidacloprid (IMP) were inserted into the LDH-LAP to obtain BCT/SB-LDH-LAP, BCT/DCB-LDH-LAP, BCT/SB-DCB-LDH-LAP and IMP/DCB-LDH-LAP composites, respectively. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), thermogravimetric/differential thermal analysis (TGA/DTA) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used to characterize the structural properties of composites. BCT/SB-LDH-LAP, BCT/DCB-LDH-LAP, BCT/SB-DCB-LDH-LAP and IMP/DCB-LDH-LAP had larger interlayer distances of 4.29, 4.33, 4.33 and 4.61 nm, which were bigger than those of SB-LDH-LAP (3.87 nm), DCB-LDH-LAP (3.83 nm) and LDH-LAP (1.65 nm). The FT-IR and TGA/DTA results further confirmed the existence of SB, DCB, BCT and IMP into LDH-LAP. The pesticide releases were investigated and analyzed in pH 5.0 and 6.8 buffer solutions. The release behaviors can be fitted by pseudo second-order and parabolic diffusion models. The composites based on LDH-LAP could be suggested to potential application for controlled-release of the pesticide. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were exposed to individual and binary mixture of imidacloprid (IMI) and dinotefuran (DIN) at 0.05 and 0.5 mg/kg for 28 days to investigate their bioaccumulation, transformation and toxicity. IMI was more easily absorbed by earthworms than DIN, and worms didn't accumulate or generate toxic metabolites. The obvious accumulation of neonicotinoids during later period caused significant neural dysfunction, especially when exposed to high-concentration IMI. Meanwhile, oxidative stress indicated by decreased SOD/CAT activity (33.2 %-68.1 %) and increased MDA (38.4 %-55.0 %) was induced by binary exposure with high-concentration IMI. By contrast, coelomocytes responded earlier and more strongly than oxidative responses. Coelomocytes' viability and mitochondrial membrane potential were inhibited (23.6 %-91.7 %) mainly by IMI and binary exposure. Coelomocytes' lactate dehydrogenase activity exerted a fluctuating pattern, suggesting irregular disturbance on cellular functions. This study highlights the role of coelomocytes and the need to consider binary/multiple scenarios and transformation of neonicotinoids in their risk assessment to earthworms. [Display omitted] • Imidacloprid was more easily taken up by earthworms than dinotefuran. • Earthworms didn't accumulate or generate toxic metabolites of IMI and DIN. • IMI and its co-exposure with DIN exerted evident neurotoxicity and oxidative stress. • Coelomocytes responded earlier to neonicotinoid exposure than histological enzymes. • Lactate dehydrogenase activity is a sensitive indicator for neonicotinoid exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heterothermic insectivorous bats are supposed to experience differential adverse effects of insecticidal pollutants depending on their seasonal and/or daily variation of metabolic and detoxification rates. Here, we investigated effects of imidacloprid, cypermethrin and fipronil on Nyctalus noctula bat-derived hepatocytes through cytotoxicity, cell inhibition and death at different concentrations (0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000 μg/ml), exposure times (10, 24, 48 hrs), incubation temperatures simulating hibernation (8 °C), daily torpor (20 °C), normothermy (37 °C) and active flight (40 °C), and cytochrome P450 addition. Toxic effects were significantly influenced by temperature (p < 0.05), with strong cytotoxicity after 10 hour exposure to fipronil or cypermethrin at 37 and 40 °C, cell replication inhibition (all insecticides at 8 °C) and cellular stimulation, with slight culture proliferation after 48 hours (all insecticides at 40 °C). Replacing protected chiropterans with cell cultures is a way to assess and extrapolate risks of insecticides for bats. • Insecticides are hepatocytotoxic for bats at temperatures of normothermy and flight. • Insecticides inhibit bat hepatocyte replication at hibernation temperature. • Insecticides stimulate compensatory hepatocyte proliferation at higher temperatures. • Cytochrome P450 increases toxic impact of imidacloprid and fipronil in bats. • Cytochrome P450 reduces toxic impact of cypermethrin in bat hepatocytes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macrocyclic lactone (ML) anthelmintics are currently the only class of drugs available for canine heartworm prevention. Recent reports of Dirofilaria immitis infection occurring in dogs reportedly receiving 'rigorous' prevention in Queensland, Australia, coupled with the confirmation of ML-resistant isolates in the USA, has led to speculation about the potential emergence of ML-resistance in Australia. In this study, we describe two cases (Dog 1 and 2) of asymptomatic canine heartworm disease in Townsville, Australia, that were reportedly receiving 'rigorous' heartworm prevention according to the owners' claims. We aimed to deploy currently available tools to assess the phenotypic and genotypic ML-resistance status of these two dogs. For phenotypic testing, we performed an in-vivo 7-day microfilariae suppression test using a dose of spot-on moxidectin (Advocate™ for Dogs, 100 g/L imidacloprid + 25 g/L moxidectin). This formulation is marketed as Advantage Multi® for Dogs in the USA, which claims a D. immitis microfilaricidal effect. For genetic testing, an Illumina amplicon metabarcoding approach was used to target single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) previously associated with ML-resistance in D. immitis from the USA. Dog 1 and Dog 2 demonstrated <10 % and <40 % reductions in circulating microfilariae seven days after moxidectin treatment, respectively. These phenotypes were not corroborated by genetic SNP testing, as both dogs were classified as susceptible across all examined markers. To streamline testing of D. immitis SNPs, we developed a rhAmp™ SNP qPCR approach for rapidly genotyping suspect cases of ML-resistant infections at the two major loci (L15709_A and L30575). These findings illustrate a phenomenon shown in some heartworm cases outside the USA, whereby infected dogs are failing to see marked reductions in microfilaraemia after ML treatment but possess an ML-susceptible genotype. • Microfilariae suppression testing using Advocate™ for Dogs reduced microfilaremia by <40 % after seven days. • Genetic SNP testing classified D. immitis samples as genetically macrocyclic lactone-'susceptible'. • Comparison of rhAmp™ SNP qPCR assay and an Illumina amplicon metabarcoding approach for two D. immitis SNPs associated with macrocyclic lactone resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to assess the toxicity effects of chlorpyrifos and imidacloprid, alone and in combination, on oxidative biomarkers and blood biochemistry of Cyprinus carpio. A total of 324 common carp (Cyprinus carpio) were distributed among 27 tanks and exposed to concentrations of 0.0, 100, and 200 μg L−1 of chlorpyrifos and 0.0, 10.0, and 20.0 μg L−1 of imidacloprid for 28 days. Changes in enzyme activities in the plasma of fish exposed to chlorpyrifos depended on the dose. In contrast, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine phosphokinase (CPK), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activities were significantly increased in fish exposed to imidacloprid, alone and in combination with chlorpyrifos. However, the activity of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) was significantly decreased. Exposure to imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos, alone and in combination, increased glucose, urea, cholesterol, triglycerides, and creatinine levels, whereas total protein and albumin levels were significantly decreased. The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and catalase (CAT) was significantly increased, while glutathione reductase (GR) was significantly decreased. Additionally, although the total antioxidant capacity (TAN) was significantly decreased, malondialdehyde (MDA) levels increased after exposure to imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos, alone and in combination. In conclusion, exposure to imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos, alone and in combination, induced oxidative stress and altered blood biochemistry in carp fish. Moreover, imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos had synergistic effects on some oxidative and biochemical biomarkers. [Display omitted] • The toxicity of chlorpyrifos and imidacloprid, alone and combined, on fish was assayed. • Chlorpyrifos exposure led to dose-dependent blood biochemistry changes. • Imidacloprid exposure changed blood biochemical parameters. • Exposure to chlorpyrifos and imidacloprid, alone and combined, induced oxidative stress. • Combined exposure of both pesticides showed synergistic effects on all biomarkers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high efficient surface-enhanced Raman scatterring (SERS) methods to detect thiacloprid and imidacloprid were established using ZIF-8-wrapped Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) modified with β -cyclodextrin (β -CD). The substrate of ZIF-8/ β -CD@AgNPs was characterized by ultraviolet visible spectra (UV–vis), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). The interaction between the substrate and thiacloprid/imidacloprid was also explored. The optimum measurement conditions were obtained by response surface model based on single-factor experiments. Enhancement factors (EFs) of thiacloprid and imidacloprid were respectively 2.29 × 106 and 2.60 × 106. A good linearity between the scattering intensity and the concentration of thiacloprid/imidacloprid within 3–1000 nmol L−1/6–400 nmol L−1 was established. The interference experiments indicated that the methods had good selectivity. The SERS methods were successfully applied to detect thiacloprid and imidacloprid in several vegetables samples. The recoveries ranged from 95.5 % to 105 % (n = 5). The detection limits (LODs) (S/N = 3) for thiacloprid and imidacloprid were 1.50 and 0.83 nmol L−1, respectively. [Display omitted] • A novel SERS substrate ZIF-8/ β -CD@AgNPs was synthesized and adequately characterized. • Enhancement factors of three substrates for thiacloprid/imidacloprid were compared. • SERS enhancement mechanism of thiacloprid/imidacloprid was discussed. • The methods were applied to test pesticide residues in vegetable samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The ZA/PDS/VL-Pi process showed superior IMI degradation efficiency at 90.6%. • 1O 2 and •OH contributed to the degradation of IMI in the ZA/PDS/VL-Pi process. • The ZA/PDS/VL-Pi process performed the substantial detoxification of IMI. • The ZA/PDS/VL-Pi process exhibited satisfactory anti-environmental interference. The residual imidacloprid (IMI) insecticide in the environment has become a potential risk to ecological safety and human health, encouraging an efficient, sustainable and environment friendly approach for its removal. In this study, zinc-aluminum layered double hydroxide (ZA) is applied in the photo-piezocatalytic (VL-Pi) process to activate PDS (ZA/PDS/VL-Pi) for the degradation of IMI. The degradation ratio of ZA/PDS/VL-Pi process for IMI reaches 90.6% with a reaction rate constant of 0.021 min−1, which is 205 and 29 times higher than that of ZA and ZA/PDS processes, respectively. This significant enhancement can be attributed to the stimulation of high current by VL-Pi effect that generated electrons (e-) and holes (h+) on ZA for PDS activation, resulting in efficient separation of e-/h+ pairs, and the production of more reactive oxygen species (1O 2 and •OH). Furthermore, by combining DFT calculation with experimental tests, degradation pathways of IMI and toxicity of the intermediates are elucidated, demonstrating the substantial detoxification of IMI. Moreover, the ZA/PDS/VL-Pi process functions well over a wide pH range from 3.0 to 9.0 and in various natural water matrices. This work is dedicated to opening up a new field for the application of photo-piezoelectric catalysis by utilization of green energy in environmental remediation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercial pesticide formulations often contain both the active ingredient and different adjuvants, the potential impacts of adjuvants on pesticides' transformation have been barely considered. In this study, effects of typical adjuvants (i.e. hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CTAC) and p-Octyl polyethylene glycol phenyl ether (TX-100)) on the photodegradation of four selected neonicotinoid insecticides (NIs), including thiamethoxam (TMX), dinotefuran (DIN), imidacloprid (IMP) and acetamiprid (ACP) were systematically investigated. Specifically, CTAB and CTAC exhibited minimal or no impact on the photolysis of four NIs, while TX-100 significantly inhibited their decay. Such inhibitory effect could mainly be attributed weakening the formation of key transient intermediates, such as the corresponding radical cation (NI•+), radical anion (NI•-) as well as hydrated electron (e aq -). Photoproducts identification revealed a novel transformation pathway of NIs in the presence of TX-100, characterized by de-chain reactions, resulting in the formation of photostable dimeric photoproducts. These dimers exhibited varying toxicity: for TMX, DIN and IMP, their corresponding dimers showed increased toxicity compared to their parent compounds, whereas for ACP, they displayed decreased toxicity. These provide important information for the evaluation the environmental fates and toxicology of formulaic NIs. [Display omitted] • Adjuvant TX-100 exhibits an inhibition effect on photolysis of four selected NIs. • A novel dimerization pathway is observed for 4 NIs in the presence of TX-100. • Most of the dimeric products are more toxic than the parent NIs. • The key transient intermediates were identified to be TMX•+, TMX•- and e aq -. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extensive use of neonicotinoids (NEOs) in agricultural production has led to their pervasive presence in various environmental matrices, including human samples. Given the central role of fruits and vegetables in daily human diets, it is crucial to evaluate the levels of NEOs residues and their potential health risks. In this study, 3104 vegetable samples and 1567 fruit samples from the Shenzhen city were analyzed. Using the relative potency factor (RPF) method, the residue levels of six representative neonicotinoids, including imidacloprid (IMI), acetamiprid (ACE), thiamethoxam (THM), dinotefuran (DIN), clothianidin (CLO), thiacloprid (THI), were systematically evaluated. The estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard quotient (HQ), and hazard index (HI) for both children and adults were calculated to gauge the prevalence and potential health risks of NEOs in fruits and vegetables. Acetamiprid (ACE) was the most frequently detected NEO in vegetables (69.4%) and fruits (73.9%), making it the predominant contributor to total residues. Further analyses indicated notably higher levels of imidacloprid-equivalent total neonicotinoids (IMI RPF) in root and tuber vegetables (3025 μg/kg) and other fruits (243 μg/kg). A significant strong positive correlation (r = 0.748, P < 0.05) was observed between thiamethoxam (THM) and clothianidin (CLO), possibly due to their shared metabolic pathways. Although the mean HI values for adults and children from daily fruit (adults: 0.02, children: 0.01) and vegetable (adults: 0.02, children: 0.03) intake were generally below safety thresholds, some maximum HI values exceeded these limits, indicating that the potential health risks associated with NEOs exposure should not be overlooked. [Display omitted] • ACE is the most commonly detected neonicotinoid, dominating residue levels. • CLO and THM show a strong positive correlation. • The health risk from fruit and vegetable intake is low for both children and adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imidacloprid (IMI) is used extensively as an insecticide and poses a significant risk to both the ecological environment and human health. Biological methods are currently gaining recognition among the different strategies tested for wastewater treatment. This study focused on evaluating a recently discovered green alga, Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001, isolated from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), exhibited notable capacity for IMI removal. After an 18-day evaluation, medium IMI concentrations (50 and 100 mg/L) facilitated the growth of microalgae whereas low (5 and 20 mg/L) and high (150 mg/L) concentrations had no discernible impact. No statistically significant disparities were detected in Fv/Fm , Malonaldehyde or Superoxide dismutase across all concentrations, suggesting Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001 exhibited notable resilience and adaptability to IMI conditions. Most notably, Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001 successfully eliminated > 99 % of IMI within 18 days subjected to IMI concentrations as high as 150 mg/L, which was contingent on the environmental factor of illumination. Molecular docking was used to identify the chemical reaction sites between IMI and typical degrading enzyme CYP450. Furthermore, the study revealed that the primary path for IMI removal was biodegradation and verified that the toxicity of the degraded product was lower than parent IMI in Caenorhabditis elegans. The efficacy of Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001 in wastewater was exceptional, thereby validating its practical utility. [Display omitted] • Isolated an algal Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001, having potential on bioremediation. • Exhibited tolerance to Imidacloprid (IMI, 5-150 mg/L) of Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001. • Microalgae achieved > 99 % IMI removal and mainly by light-dependent biodegradation. • Identified main action sites by molecular docking and four pathways were inferred. • Lower toxicity of biodegradation byproducts was verified by Caenorhabditis elegans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid insecticide that has received particular attention due to its widespread use and potential adverse effects for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Its toxicity to aquatic organisms has been evaluated in central and southern Europe as well as in (sub-)tropical regions of Africa and Asia, showing high toxic potential for some aquatic insects and zooplankton taxa. However, its toxicity to aquatic organisms representative of tropical regions of Latin America has never been evaluated. To fill this knowledge gap, we carried out a mesocosm experiment to assess the short- and long-term effects of imidacloprid on freshwater invertebrate communities representative of the Ecuadorian Amazon. A mesocosm experiment was conducted with five weekly applications of imidacloprid at four nominal concentrations (0.01 μg/L, 0.1 μg/L, 1 μg/L and 10 μg/L). Toxic effects were evaluated on zooplankton and macroinvertebrate populations and communities, as well as on water quality parameters for 70 days. Given the climatic conditions prevailing in the study area, characterized by a high solar radiation and abundant rainfall that resulted in mesocosm overflow, there was a rapid dissipation of the test compound from the water column (half-life: 4 days). The macroinvertebrate taxa Callibaetis pictus (Ephemeroptera), Chironomus sp. (Diptera), and the zooplankton taxon Macrocyclops sp., showed population declines caused by the imidacloprid treatment, with a 21-d Time Weighted Average No Observed Effect Concentrations (21-d TWA NOEC) of 0.46 μg/L, except for C. pictus which presented a 21-d TWA NOEC of 0.05 μg/L. In general terms, the sensitivity of these taxa to imidacloprid was greater than that reported for surrogate taxa in temperate zones and similar to that reported in other (sub-)tropical regions. These results confirm the high sensitivity of tropical aquatic invertebrates to this compound and suggest the need to establish regulations for the control of imidacloprid contamination in Amazonian freshwater ecosystems. [Display omitted] • Effects of imidacloprid (IMI) were assessed on Amazonian freshwater mesocosms. • The ephemeropteran C. pictus was the most sensitive species (NOEC-21 d: 0.05 μg/L). • Other macroinvertebrate and zooplankton taxa were also affected (NOEC-21 d: 0.46 μg/L). • The study confirms the high sensitivity of tropical aquatic invertebrates to IMI. • Risks for Amazonian invertebrates are expected given the current IMI exposure levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research investigates individual and combined toxicity effects of nickel (Ni) and imidacloprid (IMI) on earthworm species Eisenia fetida fetida. Employing standardized toxicity parameters, we assessed the impact of environmentally relevant concentrations (ERC) of Ni, IMI, and their mixtures on key biomarkers and reproductive fitness of earthworms. Our findings reveal concentration-dependent responses with discernible adverse effects on physiological parameters. The ERC obtained for Ni was 0.095 ppm, and for imidacloprid was 0.01 ppm. Two concentrations (ERC and 1/5th) of both toxicants (individually and in combinations) were further given for 14 days, and parameters like avoidance behaviour, antioxidants, histology, and metabolomic profile were observed. The behaviour of earthworms was noted, where at 24–48 h, it was found to be in control soil, while later, at 72–96 h, they migrated to toxicants-treated soil. Levels of antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, catalase, reduced glutathione, ascorbic acid), lipid peroxidation, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated in the testis, spermatheca, ovary, and prostate gland in a high concentration of Ni + IMI. Histological studies showed more vacuolization and disruption of epithelium that was increased in the prostate gland of the Ni + IMI high group, decreased number of spermatids, and damaged cell architecture was noted in testis and spermatheca of the Ni + IMI high group. The highest number of metabolites was found in Ni exposed group (181), followed by IMI (131) and Control (125). Thus, this study sheds light on the ecotoxicological effects of combinational exposure of these contaminants on an essential soil-dwelling organism, where IMI was more toxic than Ni, and both toxicants decreased earthworm reproductive fecundity. [Display omitted] • Evaluation of the toxic effects of nickel (Ni) & imidacloprid (IMI) on earthworms. • Evaluation of earthworms' key biomarkers & reproductive fitness for toxicity effects. • Marked dose-dependent responses & adverse effects on physiological parameters. • Elevated SOD, catalase, GSH, ascorbic acid, and LPO levels in high Ni + IMI dosages. • Decreased earthworm reproductive fecundity by Ni and IMI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An AQ/ZrO 2 -CNTs-BA based molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor was constructed for the signal on–off ratiometric detection of imidacloprid. [Display omitted] • An aerogel derived from UiO-66-NH 2 and CNTs doped lotus root powder is prepared. • A signal on–off ratiometric MIP electrochemical sensor is developed for imidacloprid. • The sensor exhibits excellent sensing performance in real sample detection. Herein, a ratiometric molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor for imidacloprid (IMI) detection is developed. The sensor is fabricated by modifying glassy carbon electrode with anthraquinone/ZrO 2 -carbon nanotube-biomass derived aerogel (AQ/ZrO 2 -CNTs-BA) composite, followed by electropolymerization of o-phenylenediamine in the presence of IMI. The BA prepared from lotus root powder possesses large specific surface area and plentiful active sites, beneficial for the immobilization of reference probe AQ and catalytic component ZrO 2. CNTs can improve the composite stability and conductivity. When IMI is present, IMI molecules are rebound and its reduction peak appears. At the same time, as the occupied imprinted sites hinder the electrochemical reaction of AQ, the reduction peak of AQ decreases. Furthermore, under the optimized conditions their peak-current ratio (I IMI / I AQ) and IMI concentration shows a good linear relationship over the range of 0.05 − 10 μM. The detection limit is ca. 0.014 μM (S/N = 3). In addition, the ratiometric electrochemical sensor has good repeatability and selectivity. It has been applied to the detection of IMI in spiked samples and the recoveries are 82.0 % − 104 %. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imidacloprid (IMI) are widely used in modern tea industry for pest control, but IMI residues pose a great threat to human health. Herein, we propose a regeneration metal-semiconductor SERS substrate for IMI detection. We fabricated the SERS sensor through the in-situ growth of a nano-heterostructure incorporating a semiconductor (TiO 2) and plasmonic metals (Au, Ag) on oxidized carbon cloth (OCC). Leveraging the high-density hot spots, the formed Ag/AuNPs-TiO 2 -OCC substrate exhibits higher enhancement factors (1.92 × 108) and uniformity (RSD = 7.68%). As for the detection of IMI on the substrate, the limit of detection was lowered to 4.1 × 10−6 μg/mL. With a hydrophobic structure, the Ag/AuNPs-TiO 2 -OCC possessed excellent self-cleaning performance addressing the limitation of single-use associated with traditional SERS substrates, as well as the degradation capability of the substrate under ultraviolet (UV) light. Accordingly, Ag/AuNPs-TiO 2 -OCC showcases outstanding SERS sensing and regenerating properties, making it poised for extensive application in the field of food safety assurance. [Display omitted] • A heterogeneous SERS substrate of Ag/AuNPs-TiO 2 -OCC was developed. • The substrate was synthesized by simple photoreduction and hydrothermal routes. • Efficient SERS enhancement is achieved by the synergistic effect of EM and CT. • The reusability of substrates is obtained by the hydrophobicity and UV degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neonicotinoids are commonly used pesticides in agricultural regions all over the world, and their widespread use has caused potential environmental pollution issues in recent years. The simultaneous degradation of three representative neonicotinoids (i.e. , imidacloprid (IMI), thiamethoxam (TMX) and dinotefuran (DIN)) in soil by a nanoscale zero-valent iron-activated persulfate (nZVI-activated PS) process was investigated. Under the optimum conditions with 1 mg g−1 nZVI, 10 mM PS at an initial pH value of 6.9 and a water-soil ratio of 1.5, the degradation efficiency of IMI, TMX and DIN reached 89%, 86% and 69% in 15 mins, respectively. Degradation of the three neonicotinoids was fitted with a pseudo first-order kinetic model. High nZVI dosage and PS concentration were found to enhance the neonicotinoids degradation. In contrast, the presence of Cl-, HCO 3 - and HA reduced the degradation rates of the three neonicotinoids. Soil physicochemical properties showed a significant effect on the degradation efficiencies of the three neonicotinoids. In addition, quenching experiments combined with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) showed that free radicals SO 4 •- and •OH contributed to the degradation of three neonicotinoids in the nZVI-activated PS system. Degradation pathways were proposed based on identified intermediates of IMI, TMX and DIN. Overall, the nZVI-activated PS process is an effective method for remediation of the neonicotinoids contaminated soil. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra combined with one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1DCNN) based on multi-level feature fusion, that is, MLF-1DCNN, were used to determine the concentration of imidacloprid in water. The FTIR spectra of imidacloprid water solutions with different concentrations (0-0.41 g/L) in 700-4,000 cm-1 were measured and the corresponding dataset was constructed, and the concentrations were predicted by the MLF-1DCNN. The effect of the spectral data preprocessing by multivariate scattering correction (MSC) and standard normal variate (SNV) transformation on improving the concentration prediction accuracy was studied. The result shows that the SNV preprocessing has the better prediction effect. The comparison of our model with partial least squares (PLS), support vector regression (SVR) and multiple linear regression (MLR) shows that our model can effectively predict the imidacloprid concentrations with a higher prediction accuracy than the other comparative models. The results obtained in this study demonstrate the analytical potential of applying this method to rapidly predict imidacloprid concentration in water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid has been linked to significant reproductive damage in mammals. Origanum majorana essential oil (OME) is a natural herbal product used in the management of many diseases due to its strong antioxidant effects. The oil was hydrodistilled from O. Majorana and analyzed using GC/MS then its possible protective mechanisms against IMI-induced reprotoxicity in male rats were investigated. 28-adult male Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups as follows: group (1) control group, group (2) OME, group (3) IMI, and group (4) IMI + OME. The treatments were applied daily via oral gavage for 60 days. Remarkable abnormalities in both territorial aggressive and sexual behaviors were observed in IMI-treated rats with a significant elevation of serum FSH and LH as well as altered testicular redox status. Along with inhibition of the testicular expression of StAR and aromatase genes and serum total testosterone in addition to abnormal sperm count, viability, motility, and morphology. Histopathological examination showed severe degeneration and necrosis in both germ cells and Leydig cells with atrophy in most of the seminiferous tubules. Co-administration of OME with IMI notably improved all the above-mentioned studied parameters, and restored rats' spermatogenesis, sexual behavior, and favorably modulates the levels of both testosterone and gonadotropic hormones via its potent antioxidant effect. These findings support the use of OME as a fertility enhancer and suggest that it could be used to manage pesticide-induced male infertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective design and fabrication of novel visible light-oriented photocatalysts is an existing challenging task that requires further dedicated efforts, and it has been always a main concern among the scientific community. This study deals with the design and fabrication of an extremely active and ultrafast ternary photocatalyst based on Ag nanoparticles, polypyrrole doped carbon black (PPy-C) and mesoporous TiO 2 (m-TiO 2). Sol-gel methodology along with sonication and photodeposition routes have been employed for the successful creation of the ternary framework. Ternary photocatalyst composed of uniform spherical titania nanoparticles (10–15 nm in size) perfectly intermingled with the polymeric linkage of PPy-C. Fruitful creation of unique trio photocatalyst between AgNPs, PPy-C and m-TiO 2 was confirmed by XPS and XRD. FTIR analysis further supports the development of nanocomposite photocatalyst. TEM analysis showed uniform spherical m-TiO 2 nanoparticles (10–15 nm in size) covered by PPy-C with compact nodes like appearance interlocked very well among each other. The newly developed Ag@PPy-C/m-TiO 2 ternary photocatalyst exhibited band gap energy in desired visible range of spectra. The photocatalytic efficiency for all created photocatalysts has been evaluated taking Imidacloprid (insecticide derivative) and methylene blue (MB) dye as target pollutants. The novel Ag@PPy-C/m-TiO 2 photocatalyst produced astonishing results with ultrafast removal of both Imidacloprid as well MB dye under visible light irradiation. The newly created ultrafast Ag@PPy-C/m-TiO 2 photocatalyst has removed 96.0% of the insecticide Imidacloprid in only 25 min with almost ⁓ 2.65 times more efficient than bare m-TiO 2 towards the removal of insecticide derivative. The present report offers a highly encouraging and vastly talented Ag@PPy-C/m-TiO 2 ternary photocatalyst, enabling the ideal management of extremely lethal and notorious chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heterologous strategy has promising applications in improving the sensitivity of competitive immunoassay. In this study, the potential heterologous coating antigens (HEA) were screened from eight imidacloprid (IMI) structural analogs based on the cross-reactivity (CR) of a prepared antibody. Computer-aided molecular modeling was used to predict the optimal HEA. Compared with the homologous coating antigen (HOA), the predicted HEA prepared from acetamiprid (CR = 0.23 %) increased the detection sensitivity of the enzyme-linked immunoassay and colloidal gold nanoparticle-based lateral flow immunoassay (HOA-Au-LFIA) by 5.6 and 4.1 times, respectively. Subsequently, the HEA and aggregation-induced emission fluorescent labels were integrated into a lateral flow immunoassay platform (HEA-AIE-LFIA). The limit of detection was 0.12 ng mL−1 for HEA-AIE-LFIA, which was 7.7-fold lower than that of HOA-Au-LFIA. Furthermore, HEA-AIE-LFIA was applied to detect IMI in food samples with excellent recoveries (86.41 %–111.25 %). Overall, this strategy of screening for superior HEA has great potential for improving LFIA sensitivity. [Display omitted] • The optimal HEA, gained by theoretical prediction, was validated by the experiment. • Excellent LFIA based on the optimal HEA and AIE-NPs was established. • LOD of HEA-AIE-LFIA was 7.7 times lower than those of HOA-Au-LFIA. • HEA-AIE-LFIA with good recovery accuracy was applied in food sample detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The persistent use and inadvertent application of imidacloprid has endangered the non-target organisms. • Zn doped CuSe nanocones were prepared as photocatalysts toremediate imidacloprid. • The photocatalyst reduced the half life of pesticide to 60 minutes only. • No harmful metabolites of imidacloprid were produced during its photodegradation. • Zn doped CuSe nanocones provide an affordable, effective method to remove imidacloprid from wastewaters with zero waste. The present study focused on using Zn-doped CuSe nanomaterial for the complete mineralization of imidacloprid to ensure a pollutant-free and innocuous environment. Imidacloprid is an emergent contaminant with varying harmful effects on several non-target organisms, including humans. The Zn-doped CuSe nano-cones were prepared by using simple ion exchange and chemical precipitation methods and characterized by X-ray crystallography (EDX), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD), and band gap measurements. According to the photocatalytic degradation kinetics, Zn-doped CuSe composites photodegraded imidacloprid with removal efficiency (R) 95% and DT50 of only 63 min. The degradation data obtained by UV–visible spectrophotometer was verified by employing HPLC-UV technique with ± 2 % SD for imidacloprid concentration. GC–MS analysis confirmed the complete mineralization of imidacloprid. Nano-sized Zn-doped CuSe (20 mg/100 mL) can be regarded as an efficient photocatalyst for imidacloprid removal from water at pesticide concentrations of 15 mg/L (100 mL) at neutral pH and 45 °C with UV light intensity of 18 W m−2. This work would help remediate agricultural wastewater contaminated with pesticides like imidacloprid using a simple and economical method. Further cost benefits are obtained due to the stability of the nano photocatalyst that may be repeatedly used without a major loss in activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • A dual fluorescence-colorimetric sensor was developed using peroxidase-mimic Fe 2 AlB 2. • The developed method was based on the inhibitory impact of OH on the emission of FL. • The prepared system was used for the detection of two common pesticides, ACP and IMP. • The pesticides were detected with low LOD values and wide linear ranges. • The method was successfully used for the detection of pesticides in real samples. The extensive use of pesticides in modern agriculture has raised concerns about environmental contamination and adverse human health effects. Therefore, developing highly sensitive detection methods to identify pesticide residues is crucial for food safety and ecosystem protection. In this study, the Fe 2 AlB 2 MAX phase was synthesized and characterized. After evaluating its peroxidase-mimetic performance using a colorimetric method, a new, sensitive, and simple dual fluorescence-colorimetric sensor was developed for the quantification of two common pesticides, acetamiprid (ACP) and imidacloprid (IMP), using fluorescein (FL). The developed method is based on the inhibitory impact of ACP and IMP on the enzymatic performance of the Fe 2 AlB 2 MAX phase, specifically the inhibition of hydroxyl radical (OH) generation, which enhances the absorption and emission intensities of FL. The results confirmed that OH generated through the breakdown of H 2 O 2 via the catalytic activity of the MAX phase can decrease the intrinsic absorption and emission intensities of FL. However, ACP and IMP inhibit the peroxidase-like activity of the MAX phase, leading to increased absorption and emission intensities of FL. The limit of detection values calculated for spectrophotometric and spectrofluorimetric quantifications were 2.8 μM and 0.051 μM for ACP and 1.72 μM and 0.013 μM for IMP, respectively. Furthermore, the proposed method was successfully utilized to accurately and reliably determine ACP and IMP in spiked real samples with satisfactory accuracy and precision. These developed methods offer several advantages, making them promising candidates for the direct, rapid screening of pesticide residues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a polyimide composite, DMBD-PW, was prepared by solid phase thermal polymerization using ammonium phosphotungstate as a precursor, and phthalic anhydride as the monomolecular terminator. Transmission electron microscopy revealed its petal-like architecture. DMBD-PW showed improved visible light absorption and enhanced photogenerated electron transfer, compared with the bulk BD-PW without PA. Under visible light irradiation, DMBD-PW could be used for photocatalytic degradation of three neonicotinoid insecticides: imidacloprid, acetamiprid, and thiacloprid, and exhibited remarkable photocatalytic activity. The test results confirmed that the structure of DMBD-PW remained intact after multiple uses without substantial alterations. A potential photocatalytic mechanism was proposed during the research. [Display omitted] • DMBD-PW composites were prepared by an in situ solid-state thermal polymerization process. • Morphological modulation was achieved by a monomolecular terminator of phthalic anhydride, resulting in the petal-like DMBD-PW. • This modified morphology enhanced light absorption and carrier separation efficiency. • The photodegradation efficiency of DMBD-PW was twice that of bulk BD-PW. • A rational photocatalytic mechanism is proposed. The profound influence of morphology on photocatalysis is clear. This study synthesized a polyimide composite, DMBD-PW, via solid phase thermal polymerization, ammonium phosphotungstate as a precursor, and monomolecular terminator phthalic anhydride (PA) for modulating its morphology. Transmission electron microscopy revealed its petal-like structure. DMBD-PW showed improved visible light absorption and enhanced photogenerated electron transfer, compared with the bulk BD-PW without PA. Under visible light irradiation, DMBD-PW could be used for photocatalytic degradation of three neonicotinoid insecticides: imidacloprid, acetamiprid, and thiacloprid, and exhibited remarkable photocatalytic activity. The test results confirmed that the structure of DMBD-PW remained intact after multiple uses without substantial alterations. A potential photocatalytic mechanism was proposed during the research. This study would help to understand the application of modulating the morphology of inorganic–organic composites in photocatalysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Control of the sheep blowfly relies largely on the use of insecticides applied prophylactically in advance of expected fly activity. However, the blowfly has shown an ability to develop resistance to some of these insecticides. Recent reports of the co-occurrence of resistance to both dicyclanil and imidacloprid in in vitro bioassays with field-collected fly strains has raised the possibility that the two resistances may represent cross-resistance linked by a common mechanism. We investigated this by imposing insecticide selection pressure on larvae of two insecticide-resistant field strains over a number of generations using either dicyclanil or imidacloprid and then measuring changes in sensitivity to both the selecting chemical and the alternate chemical. Larvae selected over six generations with each chemical showed significant increases in resistance to the selecting chemical: resistance ratios at the IC 50 5.5 - 8.1-fold higher for dicyclanil, and 3.1 - 3.8-fold for imidacloprid. The larvae also showed significant increases in levels of resistance towards the alternate chemical: resistance ratios 2.6 - 3.1-fold higher towards dicyclanil following selection with imidacloprid, and 2.2 - 3.2-fold higher towards imidacloprid following selection with dicyclanil. The increases in resistance to both chemicals after exposure to either suggests a common mechanism of resistance, at least in our laboratory-selected populations. Assays with the cytochrome P450 inhibitor aminobenzotriazole showed that this synergist was able to remove the increased resistance to both compounds in strains selected with either compound, suggesting that cytochrome P450 is responsible for the resistance observed to both chemicals. Our results confirm that cross-resistance exists between dicyclanil and imidacloprid in the sheep blowfly, and hence the two compounds should be considered as related entities in insecticide rotation strategies for flystrike control. [Display omitted] • We imposed laboratory-based selection pressure on two field strains of the sheep blowfly. • Fly larvae were exposed to increasing concentrations of dicyclanil or imidacloprid for 6 generations. • Resistance levels increased to both compounds in flies selected with either of the two compounds. • Results indicate existence of cross-resistance between dicyclanil and imidacloprid. • Synergism experiments indicate role of cytochrome P450 in resistances to both compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Correcting DEB and TKTD parameters for temperature affects population size. • Correcting DEB and TKTD parameters for temperature affects population size range. • Neglecting temperature effects potentially results in unrealistic ERA. Population models provide insights into population dynamics under diverse and untested chemical exposure scenarios, supporting their environmental risk assessment (ERA). In this study, we investigate the interplay of temperature and imidacloprid exposure on population dynamics using an Individual-Based Model (IBM) incorporating a dynamic energy budget (DEB) model for population dynamics and toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic models of the General Unified Threshold model for Survival (GUTS) framework to predict toxicity effects. For this, we tested different model configurations, where i) only the DEB parameters are corrected for temperature, as is common practice, and ii) also the TKTD parameters of the GUTS model are corrected for temperature. In doing so, we aim to evaluate the importance of temperature corrections in the GUTS model within an IBM framework. As expected, increased temperature amplitudes increase the range of simulated population sizes, and chemical exposure reduces the maximum population size. The combined effect of correcting both the DEB and TKTD parameters, however, yield an overall strongly negative effect on population sizes, particularly at lower temperatures. These results highlight the necessity of temperature-sensitive parameterization in population models for a protective risk assessment under the projected future climate conditions with increased temperatures and variability. Future considerations include incorporating local adaptations and acclimatization, particularly in different climate zones, to accurately interpret population model outcomes in the context of evolving environmental conditions. Such insights contribute to the refinement of ecological realism in ERA, enhancing the robustness of chemical risk management strategies. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetland communities are increasingly threatened by multiple stressors simultaneously, such as pesticides and salinization. We examined the effects of ecologically-relevant exposures to broad-spectrum insecticides and salinization on amphibian neurodevelopment, which is strongly linked to how organisms respond behaviorally to environmental change. Prior research showed that exposure to trace concentrations of an organophosphate pesticide (chlorpyrifos) altered the brain shape and behavior of larval and metamorphic amphibians. It is unknown whether brain shape is altered by additional pesticides and road salt. Using outdoor mesocosms, we tested whether salt (NaCl) and representatives from three pesticide families (organophosphates, pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids) altered tadpole (Lithobates pipiens) brain shape. Of the two organophosphates, chlorpyrifos induced relatively longer telencephalon lengths relative to body mass, consistent with previous studies, but malathion had no effect on brain shape. Of the two pyrethroids, permethrin, but not cypermethrin, increased telencephalon length. For the neonicotinoids, there were marginally significant effects of imidacloprid and thiamethoxam on telencephalon length. Thus, the impacts of pesticides on brain shape was not dictated by pesticide family. Exposure to relatively high concentrations of salt resulted in brains that were less wide but had longer optic tecta. Although we failed to find strong interactive effect of salt with pesticides, there was some weak, nonsignificant, evidence that exposure to salt masked responses to pesticides. Together, our results indicate that environmentally realistic levels of pesticides and salinization can alter larval brain shape. Our study highlights the importance of studying the impacts of naturally-occurring levels of pesticides and salinization on vertebrate neural development. [Display omitted] • Trace levels of agrochemicals and salinization impact vertebrate neural development. • Naturally-occurring levels of pesticides changed tadpole brain shape. • Pesticide type did not predict impacts on tadpole brain shape. • Naturally-occurring levels of road salt changed tadpole brain shape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imidacloprid (IMI) is a widely used neonicotinoid insecticide that poses risks for developmental neurotoxicity in mammals. The present study investigated the effects of maternal exposure to IMI on behaviors and adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) of rat offspring. Dams were exposed to IMI via diet (83, 250, or 750 ppm in diet) from gestational day 6 until day 21 post-delivery on weaning, and offspring were maintained until adulthood on postnatal day 77. In the neurogenic niche, 750-ppm IMI decreased numbers of late-stage neural progenitor cells (NPCs) and post-mitotic immature granule cells by suppressing NPC proliferation and ERK1/2–FOS-mediated synaptic plasticity of granule cells on weaning. Suppressed reelin signaling might be responsible for the observed reductions of neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. In adulthood, IMI at ≥ 250 ppm decreased neural stem cells by suppressing their proliferation and increasing apoptosis, and mature granule cells were reduced due to suppressed NPC differentiation. Behavioral tests revealed increased spontaneous activity in adulthood at 750 ppm. IMI decreased hippocampal acetylcholinesterase activity and Chrnb2 transcript levels in the DG on weaning and in adulthood. IMI increased numbers of astrocytes and M1-type microglia in the DG hilus, and upregulated neuroinflammation and oxidative stress-related genes on weaning. In adulthood, IMI increased malondialdehyde level and number of M1-type microglia, and downregulated neuroinflammation and oxidative stress-related genes. These results suggest that IMI persistently affected cholinergic signaling, induced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress during exposure, and increased sensitivity to oxidative stress after exposure in the hippocampus, causing hyperactivity and progressive suppression of neurogenesis in adulthood. The no-observed-adverse-effect level of IMI for offspring behaviors and hippocampal neurogenesis was determined to be 83 ppm (5.5–14.1 mg/kg body weight/day). • Imidacloprid progressively suppressed hippocampal neurogenesis throughout adulthood. • Imidacloprid increased spontaneous activity in open field test of adult offspring. • Imidacloprid persistently affected cholinergic signaling in the hippocampus. • Imidacloprid induced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in the hippocampus. • The NOAEL of imidacloprid for offspring neurotoxicity was 83 ppm in diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An UPLC-MS/MS 5-window-method enduring 22 min has been optimized. • This sensitive and accurate method allows to quantify 23 pesticides in human urine. • The optimization includes 3 further pesticide groups: neonicotinoids, carbamates and triazoles. • Pesticides still in use and others already banned by legislations are included. • This method is optimal as a HBM tool for health risk assessment in large population surveys. An accurate and sensitive method for the determination of a total of 23 pesticides and their metabolites in human urine has been optimised. The methodology is based on a previously published method based on solid-phase extraction with methanol and acetone followed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) in the selected reaction mode (SRM) with both positive and negative electrospray ionization (ESI+/-). The detection settings of the previous method, which allowed to determine the metabolites from 6 organophosphate and 2 pyrethroid pesticides, were optimised in order to include further pesticide groups, such as 11 neonicotinoids, 3 carbamates/thiocarbamates and 2 triazoles. The 5-windows method enduring 22 min was optimized with acceptable results in relation to accuracy (recoveries >75 %), precision (coefficients of variation <26 %) and linearity (R2> 0.9915). The limits of detection ranged between 0.012 ng/mL and 0.058 ng/mL. Samples from the German External Quality Assessment Scheme (G-EQUAS) encompassing 2 pyrethroids, 2 organophosphate and one neonicotinoid (6-chloronicotinic acid, a common metabolite of imidacloprid and acetamiprid) were analysed, and the latter, included in this newest optimization, provided good reference results. The method is optimal as a human biomonitoring tool for health risk assessment in large population surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Insecticide detection in spinach and chickpea leaves. • Micellar liquid chromatographic method development and validation. • Household washing techniques for removal of insecticides. • Residues of insecticides in spinach and chickpea leaves. In the past few decades, the employment of green analytical approaches in chromatographic method development has attracted the analytical separation community. The greenness of the developed method depends upon the toxicity of solvents and the amount of generated post-analysis waste generated. In this concern, micellar liquid chromatography (MLC) is a simple and rapid technique that generates very low toxic waste compared to traditional chromatographic pesticide detection methods. Here, MLC method has been validated and applied for the determination of monocrotofos (MCF), imidacloprid (ICP), dimethoate (DM) and profenofos (PFF) in spinach and chickpea leaves. The optimized mobile phase was 0.065 M SDS-2 % 1-propanol, 0.01 M NaH 2 PO 4 buffered to pH 7. A C 18 column was used for separation with a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The developed method has been validated following the guidelines of SANTE/11,312/2021 and ICH guidelines for; limit of quantification (0.05–0.20 mg/kg), linearity (r2> 0.997–0.999), precision (<6.3 %), accuracy (96.3 %–99.8 %) and robustness (<6) in real samples. ICP and MCF, apart from DM and PFF, were detected in the present work. After detecting insecticides in spinach and chickpea leaves both were washed with different household chemicals i.e. normal, lukewarm, common salt, lemon juice water and commercial ozonizer. Based on five washing techniques with insecticide concentration time intervals reduction rates were calculated for each washing treatment. The results show that lemon juice, common salt water, and ozonizer can be used as washing techniques for the reduction of superficial and systematic residues of ICP and MCF. Common salt and lemon juice water were better for washing over vinegar and potassium permanganate (KMnO 4) as they enhance the colour of the green leafy vegetables and are available in every Indian kitchen. They can be easily used by lower socioeconomic classes who cannot afford KMnO 4 and vinegar. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]