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Innovation based on information and communication technology (ICT) plays an increasingly important role in agricultural research-for-development efforts. It has been recognized, however, that the weak adoption and low impact of many ICT-for-agriculture (ICT4Ag) efforts are partly due to poor design. Often, design was driven more by technological feasibility than by a thorough analysis of the target group's needs and capacities. For more user-centered ICT4Ag development, there is now growing interest in the use of systematic, participatory design methodologies. Numerous methodologies for participatory design exist, but applying any of them in smallholder farming context can create specific challenges that digital development researchers need to deal with. This article aims to support future digital development efforts by contributing practical insights to recent discussions on the use of participatory design methodologies for ICT4Ag development. We present lessons learned from practical experiences within participatory design projects that developed ICT4Ag solutions in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Based on these experiences and supported by literature, we describe common challenges and limitations that digital designers may face in practice, and discuss possible opportunities for dealing with them. The outcomes of digital design projects within research-for-development efforts can be affected by tensions between design ideals and project realities. These tensions may relate to, among others, mismatching expectations among project stakeholders, top-down hierarchies at design partners, insufficient attention to the wider digital ecosystem, and disincentives to re-use ideas and software. Depending on project context, these challenges may need to be addressed by researchers during planning and implementation of digital design projects. The insights in this article may support agricultural development researchers in facilitating more effective participatory design processes. Even though good design is not the only precondition for a successful ICT4Ag service, this can help create more meaningful digital innovation for agricultural development. [Display omitted] • Digital development is becoming mainstream in research-for-development, requiring new skills and methods from researchers. • Applying participatory design methodologies in digital development projects can help develop more user-centered innovation. • Research-for-development project context creates challenges for participatory design processes. • We present lessons learned from practical experiences within participatory design projects for digital solutions. • Insights and recommendations may support development researchers in engaging more successfully in digital design processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Exposure to ICT-enabled extension raised awareness but was not associated with increased uptake of fertilizers and seeds. • Personal connections to participatory farm trials were correlated with farmers' adoption of promoted seeds and fertilizers. • Women were less likely to engage with ICT services and somewhat less likely to adopt promoted technologies. • Voice-based push messaging shows promise in spreading information and encouraging behavior change. • Market failures, choice of technologies, and message complexity likely reduced the effectiveness of ICT-enabled extension. Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are generating substantial interest from aid donors and development practitioners, including as tools for agricultural extension. However, empirical evidence of the impact of ICT-enabled extension on farmers' uptake of introduced technologies remains scarce. This four-year study evaluates an ICT-enabled extension project in Senegal using radio and mobile phone services to encourage rural smallholder farmers' use of certified improved seeds and organic and inorganic fertilizers across Senegal. Data were collected using large-scale annual surveys in six regions over four years as well as focus groups. The findings suggest that, in general, the forms and format of ICT-enabled extension services deployed failed to significantly contribute to the adoption of promoted technologies. Personal connections to participatory farm trials were consistently associated with adoption, and phone-based voice messaging appears to have potential to increase technology uptake. Gender-based disparities in engagement with ICT services and Senegal's poorly developed systems for producing and distributing quality seeds emerged as key factors limiting the effectiveness of this project. These findings raise concerns about the equity and effectiveness of ICT-enabled extension in promoting agricultural inputs in contexts like Senegal and have important implications for similar efforts in other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]