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Flowers are likely to be under various selective pressures not limited to reproduction and resource trade-offs. Here, we investigate the physiological responses (conductance, transpiration and respiration) of flowers under augmented temperature and supplemental watering, link these responses to actual flower longevity, and search for evidence of adaptive plasticity. Flower maintenance costs and plant fitness were investigated using the Andean geophyte, Rhodolirium montanum , in a manipulative field experiment. Maintenance determined by gas exchange was measured on fully expanded tepals; along with flower duration and its components, opening and closing. Fitness measured by fruit and seed production and seed set (mature/total) was examined. We artificially increased temperature and supplementally watered plants. Our study showed that flower longevity decreased under drier conditions, but the effect on flower opening and closing was even stronger, both of which advanced under higher temperatures without supplemental watering. Gas exchange also decreased, limiting water loss, under drier, warmer conditions. Those plants that reduced flower longevity under warming had higher total seed production and seed set. Plants that reduced conductance under warmed conditions also had higher seed set. These results suggest that plants are plastically optimizing fitness by reducing flower maintenance costs. Possible flower longevity and fitness connotations of our results under climate change are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although grafting has become an effective tool to enhance many traits in horticultural crops, its role in improving the performance of local landraces is yet to be proven. The aim of this work was to assess the performance of the ‘Ramellet’ tomato, a landrace from the Balearic Islands, when grafted onto different rootstocks. For this purpose, two ‘Ramellet’ genotypes were grafted on two commercial (‘Beaufort’ and ‘Maxifort’) and a wild ( Solanum pimpinellifolium ) tomato rootstock species, and cultivated in greenhouse under commercial conditions. Plant yield, morphology and photosynthetic traits were measured in all combinations, with non-grafted and self-grafted ‘Ramellet’ plants used as controls. A significant effect of the rootstock on key parameters related to yield, plant growth and photosynthesis was found in both ‘Ramellet’ genotypes. Stomatal conductance increased, resulting in a decreased water-use efficiency in both genotypes grafted on the commercial rootstocks. Oppositely, when grafted on S. pimpinellifolium , stomatal conductance decreased and water-use efficiency increased in one of the ‘Ramellet’ genotypes. Remarkably, there was a significant correlation between water-use efficiency, plant growth and yield. Overall, the results highlight the potential of grafting to alter several physiological traits of local landraces and to provide new clues towards advancing our understanding in the underlying determinants of water-use efficiency and plant yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) has well-known functions in acid-base balance, respiratory gas exchange, and osmoregulation in teleost fishes. However, studies concerning the role of CA in elasmobranchs are still scarce. Therefore, the aim of this study is to present the current status of CA studies in sharks and rays, as well as to identify gaps and emerging needs, in order to guide future studies. This review is organized according to the main roles of CA, with further considerations on climate change and CA effects indicated as paramount, as strategies in the face of climate change can be crucial for species response. The literature review revealed a reduction in publications on CA over the years. In addition, a historical research differentiation is noted, where the first assessments on the subject addressed investigations on basic CA functions, while the most recent studies present a comparative approach among species as well as interdisciplinary discussions, such as ecology and phylogeny. Considering that several elasmobranchs are threatened, future studies should prioritize non-lethal methodologies, in addition to expanding studies to climate change effects on CA. [Display omitted] • Elasmobranch carbonic anhydrase studies have declined over the decades. • Osmoregulation is the most studied role involving Carbonic Anhydrase. • Most elasmobranchs did have not yet been assessed regarding carbonic anhydrase. • Environmental alterations, such as climate change and pollution affect this enzyme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low levels of crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) are demonstrated in two species with C 4 photosynthesis, Portulaca cyclophylla and P. digyna. The expression of CAM in P. cyclophylla and P. digyna is facultative, i.e. optional. Well-watered plants did not accumulate acid at night and exhibited gas-exchange patterns consistent with C 4 photosynthesis. CAM-type nocturnal acidification was reversible in that it was induced following drought and lost when droughted plants were rewatered. In P. cyclophylla , droughting was accompanied by a small but discernible net uptake of CO 2 during the dark, whereas in P. digyna , net CO 2 exchange at night approached the CO 2 compensation point but did not transition beyond it. This report brings the number of known C 4 species with a capacity for expressing CAM to six. All are species of Portulaca . The observation of CAM in P. cyclophylla and P. digyna is the first for species in the opposite-leaved (OL) Portulacelloid-anatomy lineage of Portulaca and for the Australian clade therein. The other four species are within the alternate-leaved (AL) lineage, in the Atriploid-anatomy Oleracea and the Pilosoid-anatomy Pilosa clades. Studies of the evolutionary origins of C 4 and CAM in Portulaca will benefit from a more wide-range survey of CAM across its species, particularly in the C 3 -C 4 intermediate-containing Cryptopetala clade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viticulture is in great need of new rootstocks sharing features of scion growth control and tolerance to major biotic and abiotic stress factors. A two year study was carried out in pots to assess performances of the two new M1 and M3 rootstocks vs. those of the commercial rootstocks 1103P and 101-14. Potted vines of M1, M3, 1103P and 101-14 rootstocks were grown in a calcareous and non calcareous soil and for two consecutive seasons subjected to three N supply levels at 0, 2 and 4 g of N per pot. Vegetative growth, leaf gas exchange, leaf greenness index (GI) and leaf blade nutrition were assessed. M1 and 1103P were the least vigorous genotypes in terms of total pruning weight; M1 also manifested a stronger apical dominance. Both M rootstocks and 101-14 showed increased leaf WUE at both N supply levels which was due to ability to maintain, at increasing N supply, similar leaf assimilation rates while significantly reducing leaf transpiration. Common tendency of any rootstocks was that increasing N supply corresponded to lowered leaf concentration of K, P, Mg and B. M1 was able to combine a series of desirable features including lower vigor, strong apical dominance, higher WUE at increasing N supply and quite well balanced leaf nutritional pattern. In the present trial M3 did not have the expected devigorating effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heterosis is one of the greatest practical achievements of plant breeding and has been extensively used in crop improvement in maize. However, the physiological basis of heterosis still remains poorly understood despite its manifestation at early stages of the plant life cycle. Therefore, a better understanding of the physiological mechanisms associated with heterosis may enable further exploitation of this phenomenon. Five maize hybrids and their parental lines were grown in a greenhouse under two water regimes (well watered and water stressed). Plant growth, different root traits, plant water use and water use efficiency and gas-exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence, nitrogen content and stable oxygen, carbon and nitrogen composition and stomatal density of leaves were measured. Plant height, shoot biomass and leaf area were higher in hybrids than in their respective parents in both control and stress conditions. Moreover, hybrids showed a better water use and water use efficiency for biomass than inbred lines. Significant heterosis was also found for photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and the C i / C a ratio under water stress conditions, whereas for control conditions the differences were not significant. Likewise, root weight density and root length density were higher in hybrids than parents, especially underwater stress. No heterosis occurred for stable isotope composition under either water regime. The results do not support a constitutively better water status as a cause of heterosis under well watered conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present paper a series of WUE expressions, including the physiological and agronomical, were compared in potted cv. Sangiovese ( Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines which were either well watered (WW) or subjected to progressive post-veraison water stress (WS) by supplying decreasing fractions (i.e. 70%, 50% and 30%) of daily canopy transpiration ( T c ) concurrently recorded via a plant-enclosure gas exchange system. While single-leaf intrinsic water-use efficiency (WUE i ) increased with water stress severity, seasonal whole-canopy WUE were similar at pre-stress, 70% T c , and upon rewatering but dropped during severe water stress. WUE calculated as mass of dry weight stored in annual biomass (leaves, canes and clusters) per liter of water used, did not differ on a seasonal basis, whereas WW and WS showed similar grape composition despite the latter suffered a 25% yield reduction. Results confirm that whole-canopy WUE is a much better index than single-leaf based WUE parameter for extrapolation to agronomic WUE and actual grape composition. Under our specific case study, due to high reactivity of Sangiovese to early yellowing and shedding of basal leaves, it can be recommended that post-veraison water supply to Sangiovese vines should not be lower than 70% of daily vine water use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how water use efficiency (WUE) changes under drought is crucial for interpreting adaptive responses of species and cultivars to such abiotic stress. Several recent papers have concluded that in grapevine these responses and the guidelines stemming therefrom can differ, depending upon the parameter chosen to express WUE. In the present paper a complete set of WUE expressions, including the physiological and agronomical, were compared in potted, fruiting cv. Montepulciano ( Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines which were either well watered (WW) or subjected to progressive pre-veraison drought (WS) by supplying decreasing fractions (i.e. 70%, 50% and 30% of daily vine transpiration, T g ) determined gravimetrically before vines were fully rewatered. While single-leaf intrinsic water-use efficiency (WUE i ) increased with water stress severity, seasonal and diurnal whole-canopy WUE were similar at pre-stress, 70% T g , and upon rewatering but dropped in WS during severe water stress. Agronomic WUE calculated as mass of dry weight stored in annual biomass (leaves, canes and bunches) per L of water used, was also lower in WS, whereas WS had similar must composition with WW despite a 37% reduction in the yield per vine. Results warn that whole-canopy WUE is a much better index than any single-leaf based WUE parameter for extrapolation to agronomic WUE and actual grape composition. Under our specific case study, it can be recommended that, to avoid significant profit loss, water supply to drought stressed Montepulciano at pre-veraison should not be lower than 70% of daily vine water use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We compared C3- and C4-type cover crops for use in vineyard situations. [•] The study was conducted in the field in Germany and in pots in Argentina. [•] We quantified water consumption/loss and CO2 uptake/efflux. [•] Measurements were conducted with whole plant chambers. [•] C4 plants had slightly improved water use efficiencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The effects of two types of hydrophilic polymers on drought and salt resistance of 1-year-old cuttings of Populus popularis 35–44 were investigated in this study. The polymers used in the experiments were Stockosorb 500 XL (Stockosorb) (a granular type, cross-linked poly potassium-co-(acrylic resin polymer)-co-polyacrylamide hydrogel) and Luquasorb® product (a powder type of potassium polyacrylate), which were manufactured by Stockhausen GmbH Krefeld and BASF Corporation in Germany, respectively. Drought or salt stress significantly decreased leaf photosynthesis and transpiration, as well as plant water-consumption and dry weight. A significant reduction occurred in Drought+NaCl-stressed plants. Soils treated by 0.5% Stockosorb or Luquasorb markedly alleviated the inhibition of plant growth and leaf gas-exchange that were caused by drought and/or salt stress treatments, and the occurrence of stress-induced leaf injury was delayed for 31 and 51 days, respectively. Experimental results showed that hydrophilic polymers in root media assisted P. popularis plants to tolerate the drought and salt stresses, due to the following reasons: (1) roots took up the retained water from hydrophilic polymers when water was deficient in the soil (Stockosorb-treated plants exhibited a higher rate of water uptake); (2) under saline conditions, Stockosorb and Luquasorb held Na+ and Cl− in the soil solution due to their high water-holding capacity, thus limiting an excessive accumulation of toxic ions in the plant organs; furthermore, the exchangeable K+ that contained in Stockosorb and Luquasorb resulted in an improved K+/Na+ homeostasis in salinized plants; (3) hydrophilic polymers aided the plants to tolerate an interactive impacts of drought and salt stresses, which was mainly accounted for their water- and salt-holding capacities. In comparison, the growth and survival enhancement effects of the hydrophilic polymers on Drought+NaCl-treated plants was more evident by Luquasorb application, because it supplied water to plants at a lower rate during soil drying, thus prolonging the duration of water supply and allowed roots to grow in an environment of lower salinity for a long period of salt and drought stresses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effect of N availability on photosynthetic capacity, growth parameters and yield was studied in field-grown durum-wheat plants at both the leaf and canopy levels. Two contrasting nitrogen levels (120 and 0kgha−1) were assayed in a randomised block design with nine replicates each. Total biomass was measured at anthesis and yield and its agronomical components at maturity. Photosynthetic measurements were performed 2 weeks after anthesis in two plots of each N treatment. Flag leaves were measured, using a LI-COR 6400 combined with the chlorophyll fluorescence meter, and the whole canopy by measuring CO2 and H2O fluxes in an innovative canopy-chamber system. We showed a clear increase in photosynthetic gas exchange and chlorophyll contents with N fertilisation at both canopy and leaf levels. As a consequence the increase in yield as response to N fertilisation seems the result of a larger green leaf area combined with a higher photosynthetic capacity of the leaves attributable to an increase in the maximum carboxylation velocity of Rubisco. Moreover gas-exchange measurements of the flag leaf during grain filling seem to provide a realistic characterisation, not just of the photosynthetic performance of the crop, but also about the impact of N availability on yield. Thus, measurements performed on the flag leaf matched those at the canopy level, with proportional increases in terms of gas exchange and chlorophyll content, providing a fast, cheap and reliable estimation of canopy photosynthesis and the grain yield attained by the crop. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Prone position may delay the development of ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI), but the mechanisms require better elucidation. In experimental mild acute lung injury (ALI), arterial oxygen partial pressure (), lung mechanics and histology, inflammatory markers [interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1β], and type III procollagen (PCIII) mRNA expressions were analysed in supine and prone position. Wistar rats were randomly divided into two groups. In controls, saline was intraperitoneally injected while ALI was induced by paraquat. After 24-h, the animals were mechanically ventilated for 1-h in supine or prone positions. In ALI, prone position led to a better blood flow/tissue ratio both in ventral and dorsal regions and was associated with a more homogeneous distribution of alveolar aeration/tissue ratio reducing lung static elastance and viscoelastic pressure, and increasing end-expiratory lung volume and . PCIII expression was higher in the ventral than dorsal region in supine position, with no regional changes in inflammatory markers. In conclusion, prone position may protect the lungs against VILI, thus reducing pulmonary stress and strain. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A stand-scale forest model has been developed that dynamically simulates, besides carbon (C) and water (H2O) fluxes, wood tissue development from physiological principles. The forest stand is described as consisting of trees of different size cohorts (for example, dominant, co-dominant and suppressed trees), either of the same or of different species (deciduous or coniferous). Half-hourly C and H2O fluxes are modeled at the leaf, tree and stand level. In addition to total growth and yield, the model simulates the daily evolution of tracheid or vessel biomass and radius, parenchyma and branch development. From these data early and latewood biomass, wood tissue composition and density are calculated. Simulation of the labile C stored in the living tissues allows for simulation of trans-seasonal and trans-yearly effects, and improved simulations of long-term effects of environmental stresses on growth. A sensitivity analysis was performed to indicate the main parameters influencing simulated stem growth and wood quality at the tree and stand level. Case studies were performed for a temperate pine forest to illustrate the main model functioning and, more in particular, the simulation of the wood quality. The results indicate that the ANAFORE model is a useful tool for simultaneous analyses of wood quality development and forest ecosystem functioning. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: During an almost three months long expedition in the Arctic Ocean, the Beringia 2005, dissolved gaseous mercury (DGM) was measured continuously in the surface water. The DGM concentration was measured using an equilibrium system, i.e. the DGM in the water phase equilibrated with a stream of gas and the gas was thereafter analysed with respect to its mercury content. The DGM concentrations were calculated using the following equation, DGM = Hgeq / k H'' where Hgeq is the equilibrated concentration of elemental mercury in the gas phase and k H'' is the dimensionless Henry''s law constant at desired temperature and salinity. During the expedition several features were observed. For example, enhanced DGM concentration was measured underneath the ice which may indicate that the sea ice acted as a barrier for evasion of mercury from the Arctic Ocean to the atmosphere. Furthermore, elevated DGM concentrations were observed in water that might have originated from river discharge. The gas-exchange of mercury between the ocean and the atmosphere was calculated in the open water and both deposition and evasion were observed. The measurements showed significantly enhanced DGM concentrations, compared to more southern latitudes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Dissolved noble gases and tritium were analyzed at a series of high-intensity methane gas seeps in the Black Sea to study the transport and gas exchange induced by bubble-streams in the water column. These processes affect marine methane emissions to the atmosphere and are therefore relevant to climate warming. The seep areas investigated are located in the Dnepr paleo-delta, west of Crimea, and in the Sorokin Trough mud volcano area, south-east of Crimea. Noble gas concentration profiles at active seep sites revealed prominent anomalies compared to reference profiles that are unaffected by outgassing. Supersaturations of the light noble gases helium and neon observed relatively close to the sea floor are interpreted as effects of gas exchange between the water and the rising bubbles. Depletions of the heavy noble gases argon, krypton and xenon that were detected above an active, bubble-releasing mud volcano appear to be related to the injection of fluids depleted in noble gases that undergo vertical transport in the water column due to small density differences. In both cases, the noble gas anomalies clearly document seep-specific processes which are difficult to detect by other methods. Helium is generally enriched in the deep water of the Black Sea due to terrigenic input. Although exceptionally high helium concentrations observed in one seep area indicate a locally elevated helium flux, most of the seeps studied seem to be negligible sources of terrigenic helium. Noble gas analyses of sediment pore waters from the vicinity of a mud volcano showed large vertical gradients in helium concentrations. The helium isotope signature of the pore waters points to a crustal origin for helium, whereas the deep water of the Black Sea also contains a small mantle-type component. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study investigated the seasonal modification of wax deposition, and the impact of epicuticular wax on gas-exchange as well as photoinhibition in Leucadendron lanigerum, a species from the Proteaceae family with wax-covered leaf surfaces and the stomata also partially occluded by wax. The results of this study demonstrated that the deposition of epicuticular wax in L. lanigerum is dependent on the age of the leaf as well as the season, and generation and regeneration of wax occur mostly in spring while transformation and also degeneration of wax crystals occur in winter. Epicuticular waxes decreased cuticular water loss, but had little impact on leaf reflectance. The temperature of leaves without wax was lower than that of wax-covered leaves, indicating that the rate of transpiration impacted more on leaf temperature than reflectance of light in the PAR range in L. lanigerum. The wax coverage at the entrance of stomata in L. lanigerum increased resistance to gas diffusion and as a consequence decreased stomatal conductance, transpiration and photosynthesis. Also, the results indicated that epicuticular waxes do help prevent photodamage in L. lanigerum, and so this property could benefit plants living in arid environments with high solar radiation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

To follow the early response of the photosynthetic apparatus to elevated [CO2] applied in combination with other stress factors we exposed 19-day-old bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Cheren Starozagorski) for relatively short period (4 days, 8h per day) to different temperature, light and [CO2] regimes: 23 or 39°C air temperature, low (100 μmol m-2s-1 – LL) or high (1000 μmol m-2s-1 – HL) photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and ambient (350 μmol mol-1) or elevated (1300 μmol mol-1) CO2 concentration. Chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics and the response of assimilation rate to intercellular CO2 concentration were registered during the 4-day period. At growth temperature (23°C), we observed some stimulation of photosynthesis by elevated [CO2], expressed by higher maximal net photosynthetic rate, carboxylation capacity and electron transport capacity, while at high temperature (39°C) the effect of elevated [CO2] on photosynthesis was negative, i.e. HT induced downward acclimation. The negative effect of the CO2 enrichment at HT, expressed as diminished Rubisco activity and limitations in RuBP and P regeneration, may be due to starch accumulation as it was seen from the electron micrographs. Our results show that the ratio of intercellular to ambient [CO2], which reflects the coupling between stomata and photosynthetic CO2 assimilation, was unaffected by elevated [CO2] as well as by changes in light and temperature. In the 4-day period, the PSII efficiency was not affected by the elevated [CO2]. The fluorescence parameters were noticeably reduced at HL already on the first day and decreased further with time. We concluded that 4-day growth of plants in atmosphere with CO2 concentration more than three times above the natural modifies the response of plants to light and temperature, which was connected with functional and structural changes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

An automated transient-state closed-system canopy-chamber for gas-exchange determinations of field-crops was developed to allow unattended day and night, high frequency CO2 and H2O exchange measurements, with short measurement time (15 s) and high scanning rate (0.5 s). Environment tests on the chamber performance indicated that: atmospheric pressure variation during operation was 10–20 Pa and limited to a few seconds; leaks introduced maximum errors of 1% in the flux calculation; turbulence effect on CO2 and H2O fluxes was not detectable; during the measurement period, temperature build-up inside the chamber was typically within 1–2 °C range; photosynthetic photon flux density (Rp) attenuation by the chamber as a whole was in the 15–20% range; whereas, net radiation (Rn) inside the chamber was always higher than outside by 10–20%. The flux determinations of the automated canopy-chamber were compared with other methods. Daily evapotranspiration (E) of artichoke obtained by canopy-chamber was at the most 4.2% lower than E obtained by high-precision weighing lysimeter. Diurnal E and carbon exchange rates (A) of sugarbeet and marjoram crops obtained by canopy-chamber closely followed the pattern of those obtained by the Bowen-ratio/energy-balance (BREB) method, with maximum daily underestimations of 6–8 and 5–6% for E and A, respectively. No differences in flux calculations came out when the rate of change in CO2 and H2O concentrations was derived either by linear or quadratic regressions (QR). The results of all tests and comparisons showed that the automated chamber presented is a valuable and accurate tool for monitoring day and night CO2 and H2O fluxes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Total yield was not affected by temperature in low-node-order pinching. • Supra-optimal daily mean temperature (30 °C) decreased tomato dry matter production. • Relative growth rate was significantly increased at 30 °C. • Carbohydrate utilization for growth and gas-exchange rate were the highest at 30 °C. • Low-node-order pinching system is expected to be suitable for hot regions. To understand the effects of supra-optimal air temperature with adequate total solar radiation on dry matter production in tomato, we quantified morphological and physiological changes in tomato growth under daily mean temperature at 30 °C. After transplanting, we grew tomato plants under a daily mean temperature of 20 °C, 25 °C, or 30 °C in a growth chamber at high light intensity provided by a LED source until the cumulative daily mean temperature (CT) reached 2000 °C. Plants were pinched when CT reached 1000 °C to remove the vegetative growth sink. Total dry matter was significantly lower at 30 °C than in the other treatments, although relative growth rate (RGR) increased with increasing temperature. An RGR increase at 30 °C was associated with greater net assimilation rate and leaf area ratio. Gross photosynthetic rate and utilization of carbohydrates for plant growth also increased with increasing daily mean temperature. At CT 2000 °C, gas-exchange rate at 30 °C was about twice as high as that at 20 °C, though they were similar at CT 1000 °C in spite of difference of daily mean temperature. Accumulation of non-structural carbohydrates in leaves and stems at 30 °C were less than those at 20 °C. We conclude that supra-optimal daily mean temperature (30 °C) increases RGR, because not only the gas-exchange rate was high, but also photosynthetic assimilates are utilized efficiently for plant growth at 30 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Glyphosate induced marked changes in leaf ultrastructure and promoted cell death. • Transcriptional and biochemical control of photosynthesis was impaired by glyphosate. • Glyphosate-treated plants presented a lower water use efficiency. • The few viable cells were shown to preserve their photosynthetic potential. This study aimed to assess the toxicity of glyphosate (GLY; 0, 10, 20 and 30 mg kg−1) in Solanum lycopersicum L., particularly focusing on the photosynthetic metabolism. By combining ecophysiological, ultrastructural, biochemical and molecular tools, the results revealed that the exposure of tomato plants to GLY led to alterations in leaf water balance regulation [increasing stomatal conductance (g s) and decreasing water use efficiency (WUE i) at higher concentrations] and induced slight alterations in the structural integrity of cells, mainly in chloroplasts, accompanied by a loss of cell viability. Moreover, the transcriptional and biochemical control of several photosynthetic-related parameters was reduced upon GLY exposure. However, in vivo chlorophyll fluorometry and IRGA gas-exchange studies revealed that the photosynthetic yield of S. lycopersicum was not repressed by GLY. Overall, GLY impacts cellular and subcellular homeostasis (by affecting chloroplast structure, reducing photosynthetic pigments and inhibiting photosynthetic-related genes transcription), and leaf structure, but is not reducing the carbon flow on a leaf area basis. Altogether, these results suggest a trade-off effect in which GLY-induced toxicity is compensated by a higher photosynthetic activity related to GLY-induced dysfunction in g s and an increase in mesophyll thickness/density, allowing the viable leaf cells to maintain their photosynthetic capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]