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Access to modern commercialization channels is key for smallholder farmers to move away from subsistence farming and overcome poverty. However, achieving that goal is challenging for smallholders given their lack of appropriate managerial practices, production technology and infrastructure. This paper examines the association between receiving trainings in two distinct entrepreneurial practices, one direct at the individual and farmer-association level and another indirect at the community level, and commercialization in non-local markets at the extensive and intensive margins. We exploit a panel dataset of bean producers in Nicaragua that participated in an NGO program implemented between 2007 and 2012. We find opposite results for the two market-linkage activities, especially on the intensive margin or volume of sales. While reciving direct training on entrepreneurial practices (EP) is positively associated with commercialization, training on municipality engagement (ME) activities is negatively associated. These correlation patterns are mainly observed among entrant farmers as opposed to those already participating in commercial markets prior to the program implementation. We also find varying results for ME activities by plot size and leadership position. Additional estimations show that training activities that are positively correlated with bean commercialization are not necessarily correlated with the commercialization of other crops, and vice versa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Co-existence of non-fortified products disincentivizes producers to fortify. • Limited product traceability disincentivizes producers to comply with the policy. • Economic pressure prevents small-scale producers from adequately fortifying. • Political tension leads to inconsistent law enforcement, and limited compliance. • Enforcement should focus on the origin of bulk items by large-scale producers. Micronutrient deficiency is a pertinent global challenge that affects billions of people and has deleterious health effects. Large-scale food fortification (LSFF) is a cost- effective way to tackle micronutrient deficiency and improve health outcomes, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, the success of LSFF in LMICs is often hampered by limited compliance with fortification mandates by the private sector, who supply fortified foods. In this paper, we use a case study of the edible oil produced in Bangladesh to analyze the factors facilitating and impeding this compliance by for-profit actors. We identified four bottlenecks that disincentivize private sector actors' decision to comply. First, fortified and non-fortified products co-exist in the market, disincentivizing producers to invest in fortification. Second, the lack of traceability reduces the risk for large-scale producers' non-compliance with the regulation. Third, small-scale producers face economic pressures that prevent them from adequately fortifying oil products. Lastly, law enforcement is currently inconsistent, allowing the supply of under-fortified oil in the market. Given the evidence, we recommend to strengthen the control of bulk item fortification through more frequent and rigorous surveillance at the production level. This will ensure that resource constrained consumers who also have the greatest potential to benefit from added nutrients, remain able to access affordable and nutrient-enriched food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An alternative, systems-based approach to determine compliance with food fortification, based on the fortification process. • More aware and engaged firms have a better understanding of the policy that helps recognise the value of complying. • Greater frequency of face-to-face interactions is linked to better compliance for recently introduced regulations. • Firms' distrust in the effectiveness of incentives and penalties can hamper compliance. • A sustainable longer-term method could combine frequent monitoring of compliance behaviour with occasional product testing. Impact of national food fortification programs is contingent on the extent to which there is compliance with national standards. However, this compliance is often sub-optimal and is not consistently measured. One of the challenges to more regular measurement is an over-reliance on quantitative assessments of micronutrient levels for compliance, which are costly. In resource constrained environments, this contributes to weaknesses in regulatory monitoring. We offer an alternative, systems-based approach to determine compliance, presenting a unique score that can capture firms' compliance behaviour, based on whether and how firms actually carry out stages of the fortification process. The key utility of such a measure being its use to monitor fortification propensity and assess changes in response to interventions. Further, we present an empirical application of this measure, providing novel evidence on firms' compliance towards food fortification regulations in Bangladesh, investigating the institutional and firm-level factors that correlate with compliance behaviour towards food fortification regulations among edible oil and salt producers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]