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Abstract Hotspots are generated by partial melting due to hot plumes rising within the Earth's mantle, and when tectonic plates move relative to the plume source, hotspot tracks form. Off South America, the oceanic Nazca Plate hosts a large population of hotspot tracks. Examples include seamounts formed far from the Pacific-Nazca spreading center (" off-ridge " seamounts), such as the Juan Fernández Ridge (Juan Fernández hotspot), the Taltal Ridge (San Félix hotspot), and the Copiapó Ridge (Caldera hotspot). These hotspot tracks are characterized by a rough and discontinuous topography. Other examples include seamounts formed near the East Pacific Rise (EPR) (" on-ridge " seamounts), such as the Nazca Ridge (Salas y Gómez hotspot) and Easter Seamount Chain (Easter hotspot), and the Iquique Ridge (Foundation hotspot). These oceanic ridges developed a relatively smooth and broad morphology. Here, we present a plate reconstruction of these six oceanic hotspot tracks since the Paleocene, providing a kinematic model of ridge-continental margin collision. For the " off-ridge " seamount group, the plate kinematic reconstruction indicates that the collision point remained quasi-stationary from 40 to 30–25 Ma. Eventually, the southward migration of the collision point of this seamount group accelerated from 23 to 15 Ma (reaching a maxima speed of 300 km/Ma along the trench). From 15 Ma to present the collision point has remained quasi-stationary. The predicted location of the subducted portion of the Taltal, Copiapó and Juan Fernández Ridges coincides with the southward migrating (relative to South America) flat slab segment. For the " on-ridge " seamount group, the kinematic plate reconstruction indicates a continuous southward migration of the collision point from ~23 Ma, which is related to the fragmentation of the Farallon Plate. The southward migration accelerated until 15 Ma, reaching approximately 150 km/Ma. From 15 Ma to present, the southward migration has been decelerating except an increment of the migration velocity during the Chron 4 due to an increase of the convergence velocity. The migration velocity differences between the on-ridge and off-ridge hotspot tracks are mainly result from the hotspot track azimuth and the margin azimuth on the collision point. Convergence velocity varies along the trench, but it is a minor factor comparing different hotspot tracks migration velocity. Due to the EPR-plume interactions, our reconstruction suggests that the eastern Tuamotu Island Plateau formation occurred 48–27 Ma on the Easter Hotspot, which was located near to the EPR segment between the Marquesas and Austral Fracture Zones. Our model also predicts that the Iquique Ridge seamounts track is consistent with the position of the Foundation hotspot. The Foundation hotspot jumped to the Challenger (Resolution) Fracture Zone from the Farallon plate to the Pacific plate. This process triggered the cessation of the Iquique Ridge volcanic formation, and initiated volcanism at Foundation Chain in the Pacific Plate at ~25 Ma. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • We present a plate reconstruction model for the Hotspot tracks in the Nazca Plate. • We show a paleo-bathymetric reconstruction from 60 Ma to present off South America. • We provide a kinematic model of ridge-trench collision off South America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central Chilean margin (32°–33°S) is characterized by the subduction of the Juan Fernández Ridge (JFR) beneath the continental South American plate. The JFR corresponds to a hotspot track composed by seamounts typically 3–3.5 km high above the surrounding seafloor, with a ridge-trench collision zone underlying the prominent Valparaiso Forearc Basin (VFB). This region has been affected by several large and mega earthquakes, where the last event corresponds to a complex seismic sequence that took place at the southern edge of VFB in April 2017. The spatio/temporal distribution of the seismic events is characterized by a predominant southeast migration of the seismicity. An M w 6.9 earthquake triggered two days after the sequence started and occurred at the northern end of the rupture area of the 1985 M w 8.0 Valparaiso earthquake. We compute the kinematic rupture process of the 2017 M w 6.9 Valparaiso earthquake from the joint inversion of teleseismic body waves and near-field data. The Akaike’s Bayesian Information Criterion was used to objectively estimate both, the relative weighting between datasets and the weighting of spatial and temporal constraints used as a priori information. The coseismic slip is distributed over an area of dimensions ∼35 × 10 km 2 , with a maximum slip of 1.5 m. The rupture propagated unilaterally downdip. The source duration from the moment-rate solution is ∼20 s, with a total seismic moment of 3.05 × 10 19  Nm (M w 6.9). The analysis of the seismicity shows that most of the events occurred along the plate interface, foreshock clustered northern from the mainshock epicenter and the aftershocks occurred to the southeast, at a deeper location. The inverted regional moment tensors show similar faulting mechanism than the mainshock. The seismic sequence started two days before the mainshock and lasted for about two weeks, and a migration pattern of the seismicity was observed. The rupture of the 2017 M w 6.9 earthquake nucleated where the San Antonio seamount (belonging to the JFR) is subducting, and propagated downwards along a zone that presents high interseismic coupling. The complex seismic sequence might be explained by an aseismic slip transient in the zone and the influence of the downdip migration of fluids from the accretionary prism along the subduction channel. The erosive and tunneling effect left by the sudden slip of the subducting seamount might provide the cavity for downdip migration of fluids and subsequent swarm seismicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The outer rise is a topographic bulge seaward of the trench at a subduction zone that is caused by bending and flexure of the oceanic lithosphere as subduction commences. The classic model of the flexure of oceanic lithosphere w ( x ) is a hydrostatic restoring force acting upon an elastic plate at the trench axis. The governing parameters are elastic thickness T e , shear force V 0 , and bending moment M 0 . V 0 and M 0 are unknown variables that are typically replaced by other quantities such as the height of the fore-bulge, w b , and the half-width of the fore-bulge, ( x b − x o ). However, this method is difficult to implement with the presence of excessive topographic noise around the bulge of the outer rise. Here, we present an alternative method to the classic model, in which lithospheric flexure w ( x ) is a function of the flexure at the trench axis w 0 , the initial dip angle of subduction β 0 , and the elastic thickness T e . In this investigation, we apply a sensitivity analysis to both methods in order to determine the impact of the differing parameters on the solution, w ( x ) . The parametric sensitivity analysis suggests that stable solutions for the alternative approach requires relatively low β 0 values (<15°), which are consistent with the initial dip angles observed in seismic velocity-depth models across convergent margins worldwide. The predicted flexure for both methods are compared with observed bathymetric profiles across the Izu-Mariana trench, where the old and cold Pacific plate is characterized by a pronounced outer rise bulge. The alternative method is a more suitable approach, assuming that accurate geometric information at the trench axis (i.e., w 0 and β 0 ) is available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Subduction megathrust earthquakes show complex rupture behaviour and large lateral variations of slip. However, the factors controlling seismic slip are still under debate. Here, we present 2-D velocity-depth tomographic models across four trench-perpendicular wide angle seismic profiles complemented with high resolution bathymetric data in the area of maximum coseismic slip of the M w 8.8 Maule 2010 megathrust earthquake (central Chile, 34°–36°S). Results show an abrupt lateral velocity gradient in the trench-perpendicular direction (from 5.0 to 6.0 km/s) interpreted as the contact between the accretionary prism and continental framework rock whose superficial expression spatially correlates with the slope-shelf break. The accretionary prism is composed of two bodies: (1) an outer accretionary wedge (5–10 km wide) characterized by low seismic velocities of 1.8–3.0 km/s interpreted as an outer frontal prism of poorly compacted and hydrated sediment, and (2) the middle wedge (∼50 km wide) with velocities of 3.0–5.0 km/s interpreted as a middle prism composed by compacted and lithified sediment. In addition, the maximum average coseismic slip of the 2010 megathrust event is fairly coincident with the region where the accretionary prism and continental slope are widest (50–60 km wide), and the continental slope angle is low (<5°). We observe a similar relation along the rupture area of the largest instrumentally recorded Valdivia 1960 M w 9.5 megathrust earthquake. For the case of the Maule event, published differential multibeam bathymetric data confirms that coseismic slip must have propagated up to ∼6 km landwards of the deformation front and hence practically the entire base of the middle prism. Sediment dewatering and compaction processes might explain the competent rheology of the middle prism allowing shallow earthquake rupture. In contrast, the outer frontal prism made of poorly consolidated sediment has impeded the rupture up to the deformation front as high resolution seismic reflection and multibeam bathymetric data have not showed evidence for new deformation in the trench region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Maule 2010 megathrust earthquake M w 8.8 has been characterized by two coseismic high-slip patches (asperities) north and south of the epicenter, separated by a region of lower slip. Here, we invert full broadband waveforms to obtain regional moment tensors, yielding precise centroid depth and source parameters of outer rise events (M w > 4.5), including a large M w 7.4 event that occurred just 1.5 h after the Maule mainshock. Outer rise seismicity occurred mainly in two clusters: (1) a large number of outer rise events in the subducting plate located just seaward of the northern asperity of the Maule earthquake, and (2) a second cluster with fewer events seaward of the southern edge of the Maule rupture area. Thus, the outer rise seismicity is correlated with the coseismic rupture of the Maule earthquake, reflecting the stress state of the interplate coupled zone. The moment tensor results indicate similar extensional focal mechanisms for all outer rise events in the northern zone. In the southern region, most of the outer rise events are also extensional, except for one strike slip event located near the oceanic Mocha Fracture Zone. The centroid depths vary from 5 to 20 km depth, and present similar magnitudes. Many of the outer rise events nucleated near the Mocha Fracture Zone, including the M w 7.4 event and one strike–slip event. The calculated yield strength envelope for the oceanic Nazca lithosphere suggests that the centroid depths of intraplate tensional events span almost the entire upper-brittle part of the oceanic lithosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Non erosive margins are characterized by heavily sedimented trenches which obscure the morphological expression of the outer rise; a forebulge formed by the bending of the subducting oceanic lithosphere seaward of the trench. Depending on the flexural rigidity (D) of the oceanic lithosphere and the thickness of the trench sedimentary fill, sediment loading can affect the lithospheric downward deflection in the vicinity of the trench and hence the amount of sediment subducted. We used seismic and bathymetric data acquired off south central Chile, from which representative flexural rigidities are estimated and the downward deflection of the oceanic Nazca plate is studied. By flexural modeling we found that efficient sediment subduction preferentially occurs in weak oceanic lithosphere (low D), whereas wide accretionary prisms are usually formed in rigid oceanic lithosphere (high D). In addition, well developed forebulges in strong oceanic plates behaves as barrier to seaward transportation of turbidites, whereas the absence of a forebulge in weak oceanic plates facilitates seaward turbidite transportation for distances >200km. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Arauco Basin is located on the continental shelf near the Chilean subduction zone (~38°S). Main deformational stages that affected this setting show a good correlation with Andean constructional phases. We studied the kinematic evolution of the Arauco Basin using high-resolution seismic reflection data across the southern Arauco forearc basin. Three structural domains are identified: (1) Inversion, (2) Extension and (3) Accretion. In addition, seven syn-kinematic sequences have been recognized overlying the Late Carboniferous to Triassic basement, and their relationships with four traditional tectonostratigraphic sequences of the Arauco Basin: (S1) Late Cretaceous syn-extension, (S2) Eocene syn-extension, (S3) and (S4) Eocene syn-inversion, (S5–S6) Miocene syn-inversion with middle extensional structures, and (S7) Pliocene-Quaternary post-inversion and syn-compression. Shortening began in the southern Arauco Basin coeval with a major readjustment of the plate convergence rate (~34Ma) that is represented by inversion structures and kinematic syn-inversion sequences. A marked erosional unconformity (34–23Ma) represents a subsequent event of erosion/uplift during the Oligocene. A contractional Miocene deformation phase reinforced the inversion tectonic and generated Miocene extensional structures. Since the Pliocene the rapid exhumation of the Nahuelbuta Range allows the emergence of the Arauco Basin. Within the basin, Pliocene and Quaternary sequences were affected by contractional structures including the inversion of the Miocene extensional faults. The contraction along the Arauco Basin can be related to the shift to accretionary conditions of the margin and the oblique collision of the Mocha Fracture Zone (~3.6Ma) at ~38°S. The mechanics of regional subsidence which affected the basin during the Miocene cannot be attributed to major scale extensional structures (>1.0km). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We discuss the earthquake rupture behavior along the Chile–Peru subduction zone in terms of the buoyancy of the subducting high oceanic features (HOF''s), and the effect of the interplay between HOF and subduction channel thickness on the degree of interplate coupling. We show a strong relation between subduction of HOF''s and earthquake rupture segments along the Chile–Peru margin, elucidating how these subducting features play a key role in seismic segmentation. Within this context, the extra increase of normal stress at the subduction interface is strongly controlled by the buoyancy of HOF''s which is likely caused by crustal thickening and mantle serpentinization beneath hotspot ridges and fracture zones, respectively. Buoyancy of HOF''s provide an increase in normal stress estimated to be as high as 10–50MPa. This significant increase of normal stress will enhance seismic coupling across the subduction interface and hence will affect the seismicity. In particular, several large earthquakes (M w ≥7.5) have occurred in regions characterized by subduction of HOF''s including fracture zones (e.g., Nazca, Challenger and Mocha), hotspot ridges (e.g., Nazca, Iquique, and Juan Fernández) and the active Nazca-Antarctic spreading center. For instance, the giant 1960 earthquake (M w =9.5) is coincident with the linear projections of the Mocha Fracture Zone and the buoyant Chile Rise, while the active seismic gap of north Chile spatially correlates with the subduction of the Iquique Ridge. Further comparison of rupture characteristics of large underthrusting earthquakes and the locations of subducting features provide evidence that HOF''s control earthquake rupture acting as both asperities and barriers. This dual behavior can be partially controlled by the subduction channel thickness. A thick subduction channel smooths the degree of coupling caused by the subducted HOF which allows lateral earthquake rupture propagation. This may explain why the 1960 rupture propagates through six major fracture zones, and ceased near the Mocha Fracture Zone in the north and at the Chile Rise in the south (regions characterized by a thin subduction channel). In addition, the thin subduction channel (north of the Juan Fernández Ridge) reflects a heterogeneous frictional behavior of the subduction interface which appears to be mainly controlled by the subduction of HOF''s. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Kinematic paleo-reconstruction plate models show that the portion of the Iquique Ridge (IR) located next to the northern Chilean trench was formed 45–50 Ma onto the former oceanic Farallon (currently Nazca) plate near the intersection of the Foundation hotspot and the ancient Farallon-Pacific spreading center. The IR started to collide with South America >40 Ma off northern Peru, and the collision point started to migrate progressively southwards until present becoming northern Chile (20°-22°S) the current collision zone. In order to better understand the mechanical properties of the former oceanic Farallon plate during the IR formation, we used bathymetric and gravimetric data to characterize the hotspot swell and crustal structure of the IR. Results show an anomalous thick crust (10–15 km total thickness) that is capable of producing most of the swell topography (~200 km wide and 500–1000 m high) under nearly isostatic conditions (elastic thickness T e < 5 km, which is consistent with a hotspot track formed onto young oceanic lithosphere < 5 Ma). The swell and anomalous thick crust of the IR is heterogeneously distributed suggesting discontinuous magmatic pulses from the Foundation hotspot to the overlying oceanic lithosphere. As the 45–50 Ma oceanic Nazca plate approaches to the northern Chilean trench, a well pronounced fore-bulge (>200 km wide and >500 m in amplitude) develops accompanied by tensional faulting related to plate bending. By simultaneously modelling, the shape of the outer rise and the hotspot swell topography adjacent to the IR in the ridge-trench collision zone, we find a decrease in T e towards the trench axis (10–50%). This trenchward T e reduction is interpreted in terms of plate weakening caused by fracturing and hydration of the oceanic lithosphere as its yield strength is exceeded by plate bending under conditions of high plate curvatures (>10−7 m−1). • The Iquique Ridge overlies an anomalous thick crust that was formed under isostatic conditions (T e < 5 km). • The anomalous thick crust beneath the Iquique Ridge is heterogeneously distributed. • We report a trenchward decrease in T e (10–50%) off northern Chile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addition to the largest documented earthquake, the Mw 9.5 Valdivia earthquake of 1960, the Chilean subduction zone has experienced three great (>Mw 8) earthquakes since 2010 for which detailed models of deformation prior to, during and after the earthquake are available. The 1960 and 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule earthquake affected the south-central Chilean margin, where the trench is sediment filled, whereas the 2014 Mw 8.2 Iquique and 2015 Mw 8.3 Illapel earthquakes occurred farther north where there is little sediment in the trench. We summarize recent results from three marine seismological projects designed to elucidate the impact that geologic structure may have had on slip during these events. Because analysis of these datasets is ongoing, this report should be considered as an interim summary rather than a comprehensive synthesis. None-the-less, some patterns can be discerned. That we can resolve 5 m of margin uplift by differencing swath bathymetric data highlights the value of obtaining ground truth marine geophysical data from potential seismic gaps. Controlled source seismic imaging indicates that subduction of nearly all incoming sediment in the sediment-filled section of the trench is a widespread characteristic of the subduction zone segment that ruptured in the two largest events and is likely a generalizable characteristic that can be used to anticipate whether a subduction zone is likely to rupture in great tsunamigenic earthquakes. While this is not a new idea, our data provide additional insights into plate boundary evolution at depth in this scenario. We also find that subduction of anomalously rough basement topography ∼2 million years ago may have led to indentation, large scale internal deformation, and erosion of the overlying wedge north of the 2010 rupture zone and that the process of wedge recovery may have resulted in an abrupt offset along strike of the plate boundary that served as a barrier to slip propagation in 2010. In general, structures generating wedge disruption may no longer be detectable following their subduction deep beneath the forearc wedge, but their passage can be inferred from residual structures mapped within the wedge, and their impact on slip during large earthquakes may be long lasting. We anticipate that further analysis of the data from these experiments, and from future experiments that build on these results, will further elucidate the relationship between geologic structure and slip such that images of subsurface structure become an additional tool in the toolbox of observations used to evaluate future hazard. • Imaging of crustal structure in the source zone of 4 great subduction zone earthquakes. • Overview of results from 3 recent marine geophysical projects on the Chilean margin. • Widespread subduction of sediment at the deformation front associated with source region of 1960 and 2010 earthquakes. • Detection of seafloor uplift by differencing of swath bathymetry before and after the 2010 earthquake. • Anticorrelation between slip in the 2014 earthquake and plate boundary reflectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subduction of seamounts and basement ridges affects the structure, morphology, and physical state of a convergent margin. To evaluate their impact on the seismo-tectonic setting of the subduction zone and the tectonic development of the lower subducting and upper overriding plate, it is essential to know the precise location of subducted topographic features under the marine forearc. Offshore Northern Chile, the Iquique Ridge represents a broad zone of complex and heterogeneous structure of variable width on the oceanic Nazca Plate, which complicates attempts to project it beneath the forearc of the Chilean subduction zone. Here we use a state-of-the-art seismic reflection data processing approach to map structures related to ridge subduction under the marine forearc with unprecedented accuracy and resolution and evaluate their impact on the deformation of both the plate boundary and the upper plate. We show that significant ridge-related topography is currently subducting south of 20.5 °S and that the combined effect of horst and graben subduction with subduction of Iquique ridge-related thickened and elevated crust causes an upward bulging of the entire upper plate from the plate interface up to the seafloor as well as the presence of kilometer-scale anticlinal structures observed in multibeam bathymetric data that are approximately aligned with horsts seaward of the trench. In the area affected by the subducting ridge, a frontal prism is absent, which may relate to frontal subduction erosion caused by the excess lower plate topography. In contrast farther towards the north, where only isolated seamounts subduct, a small frontal prism and a slope/apron sediment cover down to 3000 m water depth are found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• New seismic images off south-central Chile acquired with a 15-km-long receiver array. • The decollement is unusually shallow at the deformation front along S. central Chile. • Shallow sediment subduction along south-central Chile is among the world's thickest. • P-wave velocities imply S. central Chile trench sediments are well-drained and strong. • Thick, strong sediment subduction may enhance interplate coupling and earthquake size. The south-central Chile margin experienced the largest and sixth largest earthquakes ever recorded - the 1960 Mw 9.5 Valdivia and 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule megathrust earthquakes, respectively. In early 2017, we conducted a seismic survey along 1,000 km of south-central Chile to image these rupture zones using a 15.15-km-long multi-channel seismic streamer. We processed these data using pre-stack depth migration, which provides the best look at the shallow part of the south-central Chile margin to date. Relative to other sediment-dominated subduction zones, where sediment is typically accreted at the toe, an unusually large percentage of the thick trench sediments are consistently subducted beneath the slope with little thrust faulting or deformation. Analysis of the sediment P-wave velocities and structure in the trench and outer wedge leads us to conclude that most of south-central Chile contains well-drained, strong sediments. An exception in the vicinity of the subducting Mocha Fracture Zone (MFZ) has trench sediments that appear to experience localized delayed compaction, thus lowering their strength and allowing the development of protothrusts, similar to what is seen in other accretionary subduction zones. The very shallow décollement along the south-central Chile allows more sediment to pass beneath the lower slope than almost all other subduction zone, many of which have much thicker trench sections. We conclude that subduction of the strong, well-drained, thick sediment layer beneath the lower slope is typical for nearly all of the south-central Chile. Comparison to other thick-sedimented subduction zones worldwide reveals that the subduction of such a large fraction of the trench sediment is particularly unusual. This strong, thick, subducting sediment is likely a determining factor for developing a smooth plate interface located well above the subducted crust topography that ultimately becomes a broad megathrust with high, homogeneous frictional properties, and generates particularly large earthquakes along the south central Chile margin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]