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The optimal time allocation models for dive cycles show a strong correlation between dive cycle patterns and water depth for the tufted duck, Aythya fuligula, and the pochard, A. ferina. The foraging time increases till a depth of three meters for both species. The foraging time for the pochard declines after three meters but increases again at around four meters water depth. The foraging time decreases with increasing substrate depth in accordance with the mixed metabolism model and other aerobic models. No change is observed in surface time and paddle rates.

A method to optimize time allocation during dive cycles extends foraging time to enable both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. The maximization may be accomplished using either the switch model or the mixed metabolism model. The switch model allows two metabolic pathways during a dive and predicts the depth at which the diver switches from aerobic to anaerobic dives. The mixed metabolism model considers a simultaneous mix of the two pathways and forecasts changes in the proportions of the two respiration mechanisms with increasing water depth.

Evaluation of foraging patterns in the diving behavior of the pochard Aythya ferina using an optimality model reveals that foraging duration varies inversely with substrate depth while the recovery period remains unaffected. Increased food concentration does not affect foraging time despite a rise in average consumption rate. Non-energetic factors affect the preference of foraging areas.

Essential oils are recognized as valuable active pharmaceutical ingredients attributed to a set of biological properties, which include antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer, immune-modulatory, analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. Their use in pharmaceutics is however compromised by their limited water solubility and low physicochemical stability (i.e. volatility, oxidation). In order to overcome these limitations, we aimed to develop nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) as delivery systems for Mediterranean essential oils, in particular Rosmarinus officinalis L., Lavandula x intermedia “Sumian”, Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum and Thymus capitatus essential oils, selected on the basis of their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. NLC composed of Softisan (as solid lipid) have been produced by phase inversion temperature (PIT) and high-pressure homogenization (HPH), using two different emulsifiers systems. Particles have been further characterized for their mean particle size, polydispersity, zeta potential, morphology and chemical interactions. Best NLC formulations were obtained with Kolliphor/Labrafil as surfactants, and using Rosmarinus , Lavandula and Origanum as essential oils (PDI between 0.126 and 0.141, Zave < 200 nm). Accelerated stability studies have also been carried out to estimate the effect of the production method and surfactant composition on the long-term stability of EOs-loaded NLC. In vitro biological cell viability and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated in Raw 264.7 cells (macrophage cell line), while in vitro antioxidant activity was checked by DPPH assay. Lavandula and Rosmarinus NLC were shown to be the most biocompatible formulations up to a concentration of 0.1% (v/v), whereas they were able to induce a dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity in the order Lavandula  >  Rosmarinus  ≥  Origanum . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we aimed at developing an improved topical SLN formulation combining itraconazole delivery with a coating layer of didodecyldimethylammonium bromide, thus repurposing the drug effectiveness by synergistic skin anticancer effectiveness. In order to obtain a stable SLN formulation with small homogeneously dispersed particles, a deep formulative study was developed screening three different solid lipids (Suppocire NB, Cetyl Palmitate and Dynasan 114) for the SLN preparation by the phase inversion temperature. A bluishcolored shade formulation, with homogeneous small particles size (<50 nm) was obtained only using Suppocire NB. The cytotoxicity of all SLN was tested after 24 h exposure against three adherent skin cell lines (A431, HaCaT and SK-MEL-5). Results demonstrate that both unloaded and drugloaded SLN did not significantly affect the cell viability of the non-tumoral HaCaT cell line, thus confirming the safe potential topical application of these formulations. A dose-dependent decrease in cell viability was observed for the tumoral cell lines, A431 and SK-MEL-5, with a significant reduction of the A431 cancer cell line viability. The drug molecule addition to the uncoated nanoparticles was able to increase of almost 20% the reduction of the viability of the cancer cells treated. Ours results demonstrate the potentiality of repurposing itraconazole activity by using the combined nanoencapsulation strategy with the positively charged coating layer on SLN, which can be further investigated as a promising stable and safe approach to significantly reduce the viability of skin cancer cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ports are complex environments due to their complicated geometry (quays, channels, and piers), the presence of human activities (vessel traffic, shipyards, industries, and discharges), and natural factors (stream and torrent inputs, sea action, and currents). Taking these factors into consideration, we have examined the marine environment of a port from the point of view of the circulation of the water masses, hydrological characteristics, distribution of the sediment grain-size, mineralogical characteristics, and metal concentrations of the bottom sediments. Our results show that, in the case of the Port of Genoa (north-western Italy), the impact of human activities (such as a coal power-plant, oil depots, shipyards, dredging of the bottom sediments, etc.), natural processes (such as currents, fresh water and sediment inputs from the torrents), and the morphology of the basin, are important factors in the sediment, water, and metal distributions that have given rise to a complex environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi include a vast group of eukaryotic organisms able to colonise different natural, anthropised and extreme environments, including marine areas contaminated by metals. The present study aims to give a first multidisciplinary characterisation of marine bottom sediments contaminated by metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn), originating in the water leakage from an abandoned Fe-Cu sulphide mine (Libiola, north-western Italy), and evaluate how the chemical and physical parameters of water and sediments may affect the benthic fungal communities. Our preliminary results showed the high mycodiversity of the marine sediments studied (13 genera and 23 species of marine fungi isolated), and the great physiological adaptability that this mycobiota evolved in reaction to the effects of the ecotoxic bottom sediment contamination, and associated changes in the seawater parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we have examined the currents and hydrological characteristics of the water column off the mouth of the Gromolo Torrent (north-western Italy) in relation to the grain-size, mineralogical characteristics and metal distribution in the marine sediment sampled. Our purpose was to quantify and map the contamination that was carried out to sea from the abandoned Libiola Fe-Cu sulphide mine that has heavily impacted the torrent. Our results show high concentrations of Cu and Zn, and relatively high concentrations of Cd and Ni inside the bay into which the Gromolo Torrent flows. However, high concentrations of As, Cr, Hg, Mn, Pb, and V found in the northern and/or eastern parts of the study area originated from other sources. The subdivision of study stations in terms of metal and mineral contents in the bottom sediments highlighted the clear influence of the currents on their dispersion and distribution in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract: The objective of this study was the preparation, physico-chemical characterization and statistical optimization of cationic solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) prepared by the PIT method as potential carrier for gene therapy, emphasizing the application of factorial design in such a kind of studies. The preliminary screening from a physico-chemical point of view on three cationic lipids (CTAB, DDAB and DOTAP), selected on the basis of their different chemical structure and increasing lipophilicity, allowed us to select SLN with DOTAP, due to its higher zeta potential and smaller particle size. Afterward, a 22 full factorial experimental design was developed in order to study the effects of two independent variables (amount of DOTAP and concentration of lipid matrix) and their interaction on mean particle size and zeta potential values. The factorial planning was validated by ANOVA analysis; the correspondence between the predicted values of size and zeta and those measured experimentally confirmed the validity of the design and the equation applied for its resolution. The factorial design showed a significant influence of the independent variables on the selected parameters; in particular, a higher effect of DOTAP was observed on zeta potential value. Different dilutions of the optimized SLN containing 7% w/w of cutina CP and 1% w/w of DOTAP, with size and zeta potential values respectively of 462.9 nm and 50.8 mV, were in vitro examined to evaluate the possible cytotoxicity on two models of cell cultures: human prostate cancer androgen-non-responsive DU-145 cells and primary cultures of rat astrocytes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The high content of surfactants is one of the major limits to microemulsions (MEs) use in pharmaceutical and cosmetic field. In this work MEs with low surfactant content were prepared by the phase inversion temperature (PIT) method using different oil phases and emulsifiers. The effects of vehicle composition on in vitro release and skin permeation of octylmethoxycinnamte (OMC), one of the most used UVB filter, was evaluated. These MEs showed droplet sizes in the range 32–77nm and a single peak in size distribution. MEs prepared using the most lipophilic lipids (decyl oleate or cetyl stearyl isononanoate) showed the lowest stability. In vitro release and skin permeation profiles were affected by both lipophilicty and structure of the lipid used as internal phase and the formulation that released the lowest amount of OMC provided the lowest active compound skin permeation. It is noteworthy that no OMC release and skin permeation were observed using oleth-20/glyceryl oleate as emulsifiers. Furthermore, a skin permeation enhancement effect was observed depending on the vehicle components. The results of this work suggest that PIT MEs could provide controlled skin drug delivery by choosing proper associations of oil phase lipids and emulsifiers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the frame of the MIUR-AEROCLOUDS project (Study of Direct and Indirect Aerosol Effects on Climate), night-time and daytime size-segregated aerosol samples were collected concurrently at five different sites (near-city, urban, rural, marine and mountain background sites). The paper reports on the daily evolution of the main aerosol chemical characteristics as a function of particle size in different environments over the Italian Peninsula, spanning from the Po Valley to the south Tyrrhenian coast. Two 4-day intensive observation periods (IOPs) were undertaken in July 2007 and February 2008, under meteorological conditions typical of the summer and winter climate for Italy. In the summer IOP, under stable atmospheric conditions, at the low-altitude continental sites the diurnal evolution of the planetary boundary layer (PBL), induces an atmospheric dilution effect driving the particulate matter (PM) concentrations, while, at the mountain site, it determines the upward motion of polluted air masses from the Po Valley PBL in daytime. The fine fraction was dominated by ammonium salts and carbonaceous matter (water-soluble organic matter, WSOM, and water-insoluble carbonaceous matter, WINCM). High concentrations of ammonium sulphate and WSOM due to enhanced photochemical activity constituted the background aerosol composition over the whole country, whereas, ammonium nitrate and WINCM were more associated to local emissions (e.g. urban site with concentrations peaking in the finest size range due to strong local traffic-related sources of ultrafine particles). During the winter IOP in the Po Valley, the shallow PBL depths and low wind velocity, especially at night, favoured the condensation of semi-volatile species (i.e. organic matter and ammonium nitrate), causing the high fine PM concentration observed at ground level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Uncoated and cationic CLZ-ALA-loaded SLN with high physical stability were obtained. • CLZ and ALA showed a slow release, without the occurrence of burst effect. • CLZ and ALA interactions justify the rationale of the dual-delivery strategy applied. • CLZ-ALA dual system did not alter the antimicrobial drug effectiveness. • A promising strategy to combine ALA protective effect in CLZ therapy was developed. Nowadays, a combinatorial drug delivery system that simultaneously transports two or more drugs to the targeted site in a human body, also recognized as a dual-drugs delivery system, represents a promising strategy to overcome drug resistance. Solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with clotrimazole (CLZ) and alphalipolic acid (ALA), considered as an effective agent in the reduction of reactive oxygen species, can enhance anti-infective immunity being proposed as a non-toxic and mainly non-allergic dual-drugs delivery system. In this study, uncoated and cationic CLZ-ALA-loaded SLN were prepared and compared. Suspensions with a narrow size distribution of particles of mean size below 150 nm were obtained, having slight negative or highly positive zeta potential values, due to the presence of the cationic lipid, which also increased nanoparticles stability, as confirmed by Turbiscan® results. Calorimetric studies confirmed the rationale of separately delivering the two drugs in a dual-delivery system. Furthermore, they confirmed the formation of SLN, without significant variation in presence of the cationic lipid. In vitro release studies showed a prolonged drug release without the occurrence of any burst effect. In vitro studies performed on 25 strains of Candida albicans showed the antimicrobial drug activity was not altered when it was loaded into lipid nanoparticles. The study has proved the successfully encapsulation of CLZ and ALA in solid lipid nanoparticles that may represent a promising strategy to combine ALA protective effect in the treatment with CLZ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The present article compares the outputs of the 3-D regional chemistry-transport model (CTM) CHIMERE against observations of the size-resolved aerosol chemical composition over northern Italy in clear sky and wind calm conditions. Two 4-day intensive field campaigns were carried out in July 2007 and February 2008 at three sites (urban, rural and mountain backgrounds) in the framework of the AEROCLOUDS project. Predicted levels are in reasonable agreement with observations for the urban and rural sites. Bias ranges from −30%, for the rural site in winter, to +38%, for the urban site during summer. In addition, the model is able to capture both the daily evolution of the bulk aerosol mass as well as its spatial gradients. Aerosol size distribution and chemical composition remain difficult to predict. The largest discrepancies were found for secondary organic aerosol (SOA) during summer and nitrates during the cold season. Compared with observations, modelled size distribution is shifted towards fine mode in winter, and towards coarse mode in summer. More accurate predictions can be achieved for both seasons by tuning the gas to particle absorption process. By reducing the SOA absorption rate by 25% at the urban sampling site in summer, the correlation between observed and simulated SOA size distributions increases from −0.30 to +0.70, and the bias is reduced from 200% to 0%. In winter, increasing the intra-sectional flux of particles from smaller to larger ones by a factor of 5, the Pearson correlation coefficient calculated over the nitrate size distribution goes up to +0.85, compared to +0.50 from CTRL, also resulting in a better agreement with the size distribution of PM10. As expected, the nitrate bulk mass concentration does not vary with respect to the base-case, and therefore nitrate overestimation remains present in the model. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Freshwater protected areas are rarely designed specifically for this purpose and consequently their conservation benefit cannot be guaranteed. Using Lake Tanganyika as a test case we investigated the benefits of terrestrial-focussed protected areas on the alpha and beta taxonomic and functional diversity of the diverse endemic rocky-shore cichlid fishes. Lake Tanganyika has limited protected shorelines and continued human population growth in its catchment, which has potential for negative impacts on habitat quality and key biological processes. We conducted 554 underwater surveys across a gradient of human disturbance including two protected areas, along 180 km of Tanzanian coastline, sampling 70 cichlid species representing a diverse range of life-histories and trophic groups. Alpha diversity was up to 50% lower outside of protected areas, and herbivores appeared most affected. Turnover dominated within-locality variation in beta diversity, but the nestedness component was positively related to human disturbance indicating an increase in generalist species outside of protected areas. Within protected areas the decline in zeta diversity (the expected number of shared species across multiple surveys) was best described by power law functions, which occur when local abundance is predicted by regional abundance; but declined exponentially in unprotected waters indicating a dominance of stochastic assembly. Despite not being designed for the purpose, the protected areas are clearly benefitting cichlid taxonomic and functional diversity within Lake Tanganyika, probably through local reduction in sediment deposition and/or pollution, but as cichlids can be poor dispersers protected area coverage should be expanded to benefit isolated communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the magnetic coupling between different ferromagnetic metals (FMs) across a graphene (G) layer, and the role of graphene as a thin covalent spacer. Starting with G grown on a FM substrate (Ni or Co), we deposited on top at room temperature several FM metals (Fe, Ni, Co). By measuring the dichroic effect of 3 p photoemission lines we detect the magnetization of the substrate and the sign of the exchange coupling in FM overlayer at room temperature. We show that the G layer magnetically decouples the FM metals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reconstruction of invasion history is the goal or foundation of many investigations of biological invasions. This study applies DNA profiling to investigate the sources and vectors of new propagules, to detect illegal human-mediated translocations and to improve the management of invasions by identifying invasion pathways that can be targeted for more stringent control. We use the European invasion of the American Eastern grey squirrel as a focal example. Many human-mediated translocations of this species have occurred in Europe since the 19th century. We built a genotype database of 1421 individuals from 59 locations across Europe and one in the USA, with each individual genotyped at 12 highly polymorphic microsatellites. DNA from newly detected populations and individuals of unknown sources were compared with this database. Our results indicated illegal human-mediated translocations in Aberdeen, the Isle of Skye and Northumberland in the UK, and revealed precise details of illegal squirrel trade in Italy. We recommend that multi-locus genotype databases be set up for all major invasive species considered attractive or ornamental, as these are often subject to illegal translocations through human actions such as the pet trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frequency of fog events together with fog water chemical composition, pH, conductivity and liquid water content have systematically been measured from the end of the 1980's at the field station of San Pietro Capofiume, in the eastern Po Valley, Northern Italy. In agreement with what has been observed in other regions in Europe, fog frequency (visibility < 1 km) has decreased over the last three decades. Ionic strength and conductivity of fog samples also decreased over the period indicating a reduction of the ionic load of the droplets. Specifically, the three major inorganic ions (NH 4 + , SO 4 2− , NO 3 − ), accounting for 86% of the total fog water ionic strength, show a decreasing trend in concentration over the period, which can be linked to the decreasing trend of NH 3 , SO 2 and NO x emissions registered in northern Italy over the same period. Sulphate exhibits the highest relative decrease (76%). Seasonal volume-weighted means of pH show an increasing trend over the observed period. The available data of total water-soluble organic matter concentrations indicate that organic compounds represent a considerable fraction (25% on average) of the total solute mass of fog water. Fog water samples often contain suspended insoluble particles, which were collected by filtering fog water through quartz fibre filters. EC-OC analysis performed on the filters collected over a four-year period, show that the sum of elemental carbon (EC) and water-insoluble organic mass accounts on average for 46%–56% of the total suspended material mass. Insoluble carbonaceous material is composed mainly of organic matter, with EC accounting on average only for 19% of the insoluble carbon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant essential oils (EOs) represent a promising alternative and sustainable tool to reduce the negative environmental impact of conventional management systems, e.g., synthetic insecticides. Their practical implementation is hindered by various drawbacks, such as phytotoxicity, stability and degradation patterns. Innovative and advanced nanotechnologies, such as Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs), could help overcoming such problems. NLCs, composed by 10% w/v of lipid and 10% w/v of oil (Lavender, Rosemary, Peppermint) were prepared through PIT method. The obtained formulations showed the presence of small (200 nm) and homogeneous particles (Polydispersity Index (PDI) < 0.3). All NLCs were purified obtaining a 20% w/v EO concentration using ultracentrifugation, without any significant variation of mean size and homogeneity. The efficacy of these formulations was tested for three key insect pests with different feeding strategies: a sap-sucking (Aphis gossypii) , a chewer (Spodoptera littoralis) and a leafminer (Tuta absoluta). NLCs loaded with EOs were diluted with distilled water at 30:70 v/v and were tested by ingestion and topical contact exposure routes. Long-term stability results obtained by Turbiscan® technology showed the occurrence of not significant (ΔBS < 20%) sedimentation phenomenon after 30 days of storage at 25 °C. Among the three EO-NLCs, Rosemary demonstrated to be the most long-term stable, as confirmed by the destabilization kinetic. The results of the bioassays showed that all the tested EO-NLCs, as well as the nanocarrier alone, caused high mortality on A. gossypii and significantly reduced its progeny by topical contact exposure. NLCs of Lavender and Rosemary EOs decreased the feeding activity but not the survival of S. littoralis. Conversely, the three EO-NLCs did not decrease the survival and the feeding activity of T. absoluta. Our findings suggest that NLCs can successfully deliver EOs by keeping unaltered their properties, therefore this nanotechnology could contribute to the sustainable control of arthropod pests. • •Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) of three Essential Oils (EOs) were developed. • •EO-NLCs were characterized for their stability and particle size. • •Their efficacy was tested towards three insect pests with various feeding strategies. • •NLCs can successfully deliver EOs by keeping unaltered their properties. • •EO-NLCs are able to provide plant insect protection as alternative sustainable tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We have performed a near-edge X-ray absorption fine-structure (NEXAFS) and a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) investigation of freely suspended graphene oxide (GO) sheets. We utilized a photoemission electron microscope to identify GO membranes and to acquire C K and O K absorption spectra. The overall line shape of C K-edge spectra demonstrates that the honeycomb carbon network of graphene is the scaffold of GO. However, the intensity ratio of and resonances, and a broad feature at about 20eV from the edge, indicate the presence of new carbon bonds. The O K-edge spectra show that oxidized regions are made of carbonyl, epoxide, and hydroxyl groups attached to the plane of graphene, while carboxyl groups might also be present at the edges. Further, our study indicates the presence of ordered arrangements of oxygen atoms in GO sheets. Our investigation provides a new and efficient route to study the electronic structure of suspended membranes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]