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β-adrenoceptor mediated activation of brown adipose tissue (BAT) has been associated with improvements in metabolic health in models of type 2 diabetes and obesity due to its unique ability to increase whole body energy expenditure, and rate of glucose and free fatty acid disposal. While the thermogenic arm of this phenomenon has been studied in great detail, the underlying mechanisms involved in β-adrenoceptor mediated glucose uptake in BAT are relatively understudied. As β-adrenoceptor agonist administration results in increased hepatic gluconeogenesis that can consequently result in secondary pancreatic insulin release, there is uncertainty regarding the importance of insulin and the subsequent activation of its downstream effectors in mediating β-adrenoceptor stimulated glucose uptake in BAT. Therefore, in this study, we made an effort to discriminate between the two pathways and address whether the insulin signaling pathway is dispensable for the effects of β-adrenoceptor activation on glucose uptake in BAT. Using a specific inhibitor of phosphoinositide 3-kinase α (PI3Kα), which effectively inhibits the insulin signaling pathway, we examined the effects of various β-adrenoceptor agonists, including the physiological endogenous agonist norepinephrine on glucose uptake and respiration in mouse brown adipocytes in vitro and on glucose clearance in mice in vivo. PI3Kα inhibition in mouse primary brown adipocytes in vitro , did not inhibit β-adrenoceptor stimulated glucose uptake, GLUT1 synthesis, GLUT1 translocation or respiration. Furthermore, β-adrenoceptor mediated glucose clearance in vivo did not require insulin or Akt activation but was attenuated upon administration of a β 3 -adrenoceptor antagonist. We conclude that the β-adrenergic pathway is still functionally intact upon the inhibition of PI3Kα, showing that the activation of downstream insulin effectors is not required for the acute effects of β-adrenoceptor agonists on glucose homeostasis or thermogenesis. Image 1 • PI3Kα/Akt are dispensable for β-AR mediated glucose clearance in vivo. • PI3Kα inhibition in brown adipocytes does not inhibit GLUT1 synthesis/translocation. • Acute β-AR induced thermogenesis in brown adipocytes is independent of PI3Kα/Akt. • Glucose uptake in brown adipocytes does not require a functional insulin pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Today, the presence and activity of brown adipose tissue (BAT) in adult humans is generally equated with the induced accumulation of [2- 18 F]2-fluoro-2-deoxy- d -glucose ([ 18 F]FDG) in adipose tissues, as investigated by positron emission tomography (PET) scanning. In reality, PET-FDG is currently the only method available for in vivo quantification of BAT activity in adult humans. The underlying assumption is that the glucose uptake reflects the thermogenic activity of the tissue. Methods To examine this basic assumption, we here followed [ 18 F]FDG uptake by PET and by tissue [ 3 H]-2-deoxy- d -glucose uptake in wildtype and UCP1(−/−) mice, i.e. in mice that do or do not possess the unique thermogenic and calorie-consuming ability of BAT. Results Unexpectedly, we found that β 3 -adrenergically induced (by CL-316,243) glucose uptake was UCP1-independent. Thus, whereas PET-FDG scans adequately reflect glucose uptake, this acute glucose uptake is not secondary to thermogenesis but is governed by an independent cellular signalling, here demonstrated to be mediated via the previously described KU-0063794-sensitive mTOR pathway. Conclusions Thus, PET-FDG scans do not exclusively reveal active BAT deposits but rather any tissue possessing an adrenergically-mediated glucose uptake pathway. In contrast, we found that the marked glucose uptake-ameliorating effect of prolonged β 3 -adrenergic treatment was UCP1 dependent. Thus, therapeutically, UCP1 activity is required for any anti-diabetic effect of BAT activation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential of brown adipose tissue (BAT) to influence energy homeostasis in animals and humans is encouraging as this tissue can increase fatty acid and glucose utilization to produce heat through uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), but the actual mechanism of how the cell regulates glucose uptake is not fully understood. Myosin 1c (Myo1c) is an unconventional motor protein involved in several cellular processes, including insulin-mediated glucose uptake via GLUT4 vesicle fusion in white adipocytes, but its role in glucose uptake in BAT has not previously been investigated. Using the specific inhibitor pentachloropseudilin (PClP), a neutralizing antibody assay, and siRNA, we examined the role of Myo1c in mechanisms leading to glucose uptake both in vitro in isolated mouse primary adipocytes and in vivo in mice. Our results show that inhibition of Myo1c removes insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in white adipocytes, while inducing glucose uptake in brown adipocytes, independent of GLUT4, by increasing the expression, translation, and translocation of GLUT1 to the plasma membrane. Inhibition of Myo1c leads to the activation of PKA and downstream substrates p38 and ATF-2, which are known to be involved in the expression of β-adrenergic genes. Myo1c is a PKA repressor and regulates glucose uptake into BAT. [Display omitted] • Myo1c is a BAT-specific regulator of glucose uptake. • Myo1c inhibition leads to increased expression, translation, and translocation of GLUT1. • Myo1c inhibition results in increased activation of PKA and its downstream targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An understanding of the full powers of brown adipose tissue (BAT) is only successively being accumulated. In a paper in Nature Medicine, add further impressive aspects to the potential powers of BAT in the combat against the metabolic syndrome by demonstrating its vast capacity for triglyceride clearance and glucose disposal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest and most diverse family of membrane receptors in the human genome, relaying information from a vast array of external stimuli. GPCRs are targets for approximately 30% of all current therapeutic agents. Recently some GPCRs have been shown to mediate part of their effects through activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a sensor of whole body energy status that plays a pivotal role in whole body energy balance by integrating signals in the periphery and central nervous system. It regulates glucose and lipid metabolism, food intake and body weight, making it an attractive target for the treatment of diseases such as type 2 diabetes and obesity. It mediates the effects of several important adipokines such as leptin and adiponectin and is thought to be responsible for the antidiabetic effects of metformin and thiazolidinediones. A diverse number of GPCRs (including adrenoceptors, cannabinoid receptors, ghrelin receptors, melanocortin receptors) modulate AMPK activity. This review focuses on the regulation of AMPK by GPCRs and signaling intermediates of GPCR signaling such as cyclic AMP and calcium, and how GPCR signaling can modulate AMPK activity by several different mechanisms, and the therapeutic implications of AMPK activation by GPCRs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

[Display omitted] β 2 -Adrenergic receptor (β 2 AR) agonists have been reported to stimulate glucose uptake (GU) by skeletal muscle cells and are therefore highly interesting as a possible treatment for type 2 diabetes (T2D). The chirality of compounds often has a great impact on the activity of β 2 AR agonists, although this has thus far not been investigated for GU. Here we report the GU for a selection of synthesized acyclic and cyclic β-hydroxy-3-fluorophenethylamines. For the N -butyl and the N -(2-pentyl) compounds, the (R) and (R,R) (3d and 7e) stereoisomers induced the highest GU. When the compounds contained a saturated nitrogen containing 4- to 7-membered heterocycle, the (R,R,R) enantiomer of the azetidine (8a) and the pyrrolidine (9a) had the highest activity. Altogether, these results provide pivotal information for designing novel β 2 AR agonist for the treatment of T2D. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The capacity of G protein-coupled receptors to modulate mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity is a newly emerging paradigm with the potential to link cell surface receptors with cell survival. Cardiomyocyte viability is linked to signalling pathways involving Akt and mTOR, as well as increased glucose uptake and utilization. Our aim was to determine whether the α 1A -adrenoceptor (AR) couples to these protective pathways, and increased glucose uptake. We characterised α 1A -AR signalling in CHO-K1 cells co-expressing the human α 1A -AR and GLUT4 (CHOα 1A GLUT4myc) and in neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes (NRVM), and measured glucose uptake, intracellular Ca 2+ mobilization, and phosphorylation of mTOR, Akt, 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated kinase (AMPK) and S6 ribosomal protein (S6rp). In both systems, noradrenaline and the α 1A -AR selective agonist A61603 stimulated glucose uptake by parallel pathways involving mTOR and AMPK, whereas another α 1 -AR agonist oxymetazoline increased glucose uptake predominantly by mTOR. All agonists promoted phosphorylation of mTOR at Ser2448 and Ser2481, indicating activation of both mTORC1 and mTORC2, but did not increase Akt phosphorylation. In CHOα 1A GLUT4myc cells, siRNA directed against rictor but not raptor suppressed α 1A -AR mediated glucose uptake. We have thus identified mTORC2 as a key component in glucose uptake stimulated by α 1A -AR agonists. Our findings identify a novel link between the α 1A -AR, mTORC2 and glucose uptake, that have been implicated separately in cardiomyocyte survival. Our studies provide an improved framework for examining the utility of α 1A -AR selective agonists as tools in the treatment of cardiac dysfunction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recruitment and activation of brite (or beige) adipocytes has been advocated as a potential avenue for manipulating whole-body energy expenditure. Despite numerous studies illustrating the differences in gene and protein markers between brown, brite and white adipocytes, there is very little information on the adrenergic regulation and function of these brite adipocytes. We have compared the functional (cyclic AMP accumulation, oxygen consumption rates, mitochondrial function, glucose uptake, extracellular acidification rates, calcium influx) profiles of mouse adipocytes cultured from three contrasting depots, namely interscapular brown adipose tissue, and inguinal or epididymal white adipose tissues, following chronic treatment with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) agonist rosiglitazone. Prototypical brown adipocytes readily express β 3 -adrenoceptors, and β 3 -adrenoceptor stimulation increases cyclic AMP accumulation, oxygen consumption rates, mitochondrial function, glucose uptake, and extracellular acidification rates. Treatment of brown adipocytes with rosiglitazone increases uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) levels, and increases β 3 -adrenoceptor mitochondrial function but does not affect glucose uptake responses. In contrast, inguinal white adipocytes only express UCP1 and β 3 -adrenoceptors following rosiglitazone treatment, which results in an increase in all β 3 -adrenoceptor-mediated functions. The effect of rosiglitazone in epididymal white adipocytes, was much lower compared to inguinal white adipocytes. Rosiglitazone also increased α 1 -adrenoceptor mediated increases in calcium influx and glucose uptake (but not mitochondrial function) in inguinal and epididymal white adipocytes. In conclusion, the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone promotes the induction and function of brite adipocytes cultured from inguinal and epididymal white adipose depots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caveolins act as scaffold proteins in multiprotein complexes and have been implicated in signaling by G protein-coupled receptors. Studies using knock-out mice suggest that β3-adrenoceptor (β3-AR) signaling is dependent on caveolin-1; however, it is not known whether caveolin-1 is associated with the β3-AR or solely with downstream signaling proteins. We have addressed this question by examining the impact of membrane rafts and caveolin-1 on the differential signaling of mouse β3a- and β3b-AR isoforms that diverge at the distal C terminus. Only the β3b-AR promotes pertussis toxin (PTX)-sensitive cAMP accumulation. When cells expressing the β3a-AR were treated with filipin III to disrupt membrane rafts or transfected with caveolin-1 siRNA, the cyclic AMP response to the β3-AR agonist CL316243 became PTX-sensitive, suggesting Gαi/o coupling. The β3a-AR C terminus, SP384PLNRF389DGY392EGARPF398PT, resembles a caveolin interaction motif. Mutant β3a-ARs (F389A/Y392A/F398A or P384S/F389A) promoted PTX-sensitive cAMP responses, and in situ proximity assays demonstrated an association between caveolin-1 and the wild type β3a-AR but not the mutant receptors. In membrane preparations, the β3b-AR activated Gαo and mediated PTX-sensitive cAMP responses, whereas the β3a-AR did not activate Gαi/o proteins. The endogenous β3a-AR displayed Gαi/o coupling in brown adipocytes from caveolin-1 knock-out mice or in wild type adipocytes treated with filipin III. Our studies indicate that interaction of the β3a-AR with caveolin inhibits coupling to Gαi/o proteins and suggest that signaling is modulated by a raft-enriched complex containing the β3a-AR, caveolin-1, Gαs, and adenylyl cyclase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aggresomes are cytoplasmic inclusions which are localized at the microtubule organizing center (MTOC) as a result of induced proteasome inhibition, stress or over-expression of certain proteins. Aggresomes are linked to the pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative diseases. Here we studied whether amyloid precursor protein (APP), a type-I transmembrane glycoprotein, is localized in aggresomes after exposure to stress condition. Using confocal microscopy we found that APP is located in aggresomes and co-localized with vimentin, γ-tubulin, 20S and ubiquitin at the MTOC in response to proteasome dysfunction. An interaction between vimentin and APP was found after proteasome inhibition suggesting that APP is an additional protein constituent of aggresomes. Suppression of the proteasome system in APP-HEK293 cells overexpressing APP or transfected with APP Swedish mutation caused an accumulation of stable, detergent-insoluble forms of APP containing poly-ubiquitinated proteins. In addition, brain homogenates from transgenic mice expressing human APP with the Arctic mutation demonstrated an interaction between APP and the aggresomal-marker vimentin. These data suggest that malfunctioning of the proteasome system caused by mutation or overexpression of pathological or non-pathological proteins may lead to the accumulation of stable aggresomes, perhaps contributing to the neurodegeneration. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The role of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) in regulating glucose uptake in L6 skeletal muscle cells was investigated. [3H]-2-Deoxyglucose uptake was increased in differentiated L6 cells by insulin, acetylcholine, oxotremorine-M and carbachol. mAChR-mediated glucose uptake was inhibited by the AMPK inhibitor Compound C. Whole cell radioligand binding using [3H]-N-methyl scopolamine chloride identified mAChRs in differentiated but not undifferentiated L6 cells and M3 mAChR mRNA was detected only in differentiated cells. M3 mAChRs are Gq-coupled, and cholinergic stimulation by the mAChR agonists acetylcholine, oxotremorine-M and carbachol increased Ca2+ in differentiated but not undifferentiated L6 cells. This was due to muscarinic but not nicotinic activation as responses were antagonised by the muscarinic antagonist atropine but not the nicotinic antagonist tubocurarine. Western blotting showed that both carbachol and the AMPK activator AICAR increased phosphorylation of the AMPKα subunit at Thr172, with responses to carbachol blocked by Compound C and the CaMKK inhibitor STO609 but not by the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin. AICAR-stimulated AMPK phosphorylation was not sensitive to STO-609, confirming that this compound inhibits CaMKK but not the classical AMPK kinase LKB1. The TAK1 inhibitor (5Z)-7-oxozeaenol and the Gi inhibitor pertussis toxin both failed to block AMPK phosphorylation in response to carbachol. Using CHO-K1 cells stably expressing each of the mAChR subtypes (M1–M4), it was determined that only the M1 and M3 mAChRs phosphorylate AMPK, confirming a Gq-dependent mechanism. This study demonstrates that activation of M3 mAChRs in L6 skeletal muscle cells stimulates glucose uptake via a CaMKK–AMPK-dependent mechanism, independent of the insulin-stimulated pathway. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: NADPH oxidase inhibitors such as diphenylene iodonium (DPI) and apocynin lower whole body and blood glucose levels and improve diabetes when administered to rodents. Skeletal muscle has an important role in managing glucose homeostasis and we have used L6 cells, C2C12 cells and primary muscle cells as model systems to investigate whether these drugs regulate glucose uptake in skeletal muscle cells. The data presented in this study show that apocynin does not affect glucose uptake in skeletal muscle cells in culture. Tat gp91ds, a chimeric peptide that inhibits NADPH oxidase activity, also failed to affect glucose uptake and we found no significant evidence of NADPH oxidase (subunits tested were Nox4, p22phox, gp91phox and p47phox mRNA) in skeletal muscle cells in culture. However, DPI increases basal and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in L6 cells, C2C12 cells and primary muscle cells. Detailed studies on L6 cells demonstrate that the increase of glucose uptake is via a mechanism independent of phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt but dependent on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). We postulate that DPI through inhibition of mitochondrial complex 1 and decreases in oxygen consumption, leading to decreases of ATP and activation of AMPK, stimulates glucose uptake in skeletal muscle cells. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]