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We explore the impact of a millennium-long period of decreased rainfall during the transition from the Middle to Late Holocene on human diet and population dynamics in the northern neotropical Maya Lowlands. To do so, we use a nearby paleo-precipitation reconstruction to evaluate the timing of this period of reduced rainfall and compare those data to population proxies and stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen from directly dated human bone spanning the interval of interest. Our results show that decreased precipitation coincided with archaeological and isotopic evidence for increasing reliance on maize as a dietary staple. Two rockshelter sites located in Southern Belize have produced a mortuary assemblage that spans the Holocene. These assemblages provide a unique opportunity to examine how early farmers during the transition to agriculture may have been affected by Middle to Late Holocene climate change. Between 5600 and 4200 cal BP lowland populations were already consuming significant amounts of maize reflected in proxies for the protein and the whole diet portions, suggesting the establishment of farming communities at least 800–2200 years before the emergence of public architecture. We demonstrate that increasing reliance on maize shows the resilience of farming populations to climate variability during this crucial period just prior to massive demographic change and the emergence of complex economic institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To validate a culturally-adapted Kriol and Belizean English version of the Revised Children's Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS) through comparison with clinical diagnoses made using the Kiddie Schedule of Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Participants comprised of 256 adolescents aged 10-14 years and 15-19 years, who completed the adapted RCADS (10 depression items, 12 anxiety items) in one-on-one interviews, followed by a diagnostic assessment using Kiddie Schedule of Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia administered by trained clinicians. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, diagnostic odds ratios, area under the curve (AUC), and Youden's Index were calculated for RCADS cutoffs and scores on the total scale and anxiety and depression subscales. For adolescents aged 10-14 years (n = 161), the AUC was 0.72 for the full scale, 0.67 for anxiety subscale, and 0.76 for depression subscale. For adolescents aged 15-19 years (n = 95), the AUCs were 0.82, 0.77, and 0.83. Most depression items performed well in discriminating those with and without diagnoses. Separation anxiety items performed poorly. "Thoughts of death" were common even among adolescents not meeting diagnostic criteria. The RCADS depression subscale presented the strongest psychometric properties with adolescents aged 15-19 years (at cutoff of 13, sensitivity = 0.83, specificity = 0.77, positive predictive value = 0.47, negative predictive value = 0.95, odds ratio = 15.96). The adapted RCADS-22 had acceptable categorization for adolescents aged 10-14 years and excellent categorization for adolescents aged 15-19 years; therefore, the tool is recommended for use among the latter age group. Based on sensitivity and specificity values at different cutoffs, guidance is provided to select different thresholds to suit clinical, public health, or other uses to detect and quantify adolescent depression and anxiety in Belize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The structure of multilateral financial partnerships has many relationship challenges, which need to be solved to positively impact sustainable human development. There is a lack of understanding in the development relationship between the so-called developed and developing countries, and development economics theories and research, which guide policies, knowledge, and funding to nations in need. Amid widespread pleas for change to the structure, Belize is a country, which remains in an economic development crisis 41 years after joining the World Bank Group. This original paper, uniquely positions "World Bank" as a brand, and adds to missing empirical research on Belize and development economics with a mixed-methods, brand relationship approach. The researchers perform a survey of 20 years of Belize government personnel dialogues about the Bank, and apply Fournier's (1998) brand relationship theories as tools to measure their perceptions of the Bank as well as get a deeper understanding of the relationship. This investigative research finds that Belize perceives it has an "arranged marriage" type brand relationship with the Bank: it is not a sustainable development partner. This brand relationship also negatively affects the way government personnel see themselves and their abilities. The World Bank Group must innovate its development economics methods and practices, assert its social mission, and meet the development needs of its members by first building genuine brand bonds with them. Debtor member countries must re-define their worth, join together, and design their own paths to sustainable development. All countries are developing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical cyclone (TC) models indicate that continued planet warming will likely increase the global proportion of powerful TCs (specifically Categories 4 and 5 hurricanes), increasingly jeopardizing low-lying coastal communities and resources such as the Pelican Cays, Belize. The combination of increased coastal development and continued relative sea-level rise puts these communities at even higher risk of damage from TCs. The short TC observational record for the western Caribbean hampers the extensive study of TC activity on centennial timescales, which hinders our ability to fully understand past TC climatology and improve the accuracy of TC models. To better assess TC risk, paleotempestological studies are necessary to put future scenarios in perspective. Here, we present a high-resolution reconstruction of coarser-grained sediment deposits associated with TC (predominately ≥ Category 2 hurricanes) passages over the past 1200 years from Elbow and Lagoon Cays, two coral reef-bounded lagoons at the northern and southern end of the Pelican Cays; the most southern Belizean paleotempestological site to date. Coincident timing of historic storms with statistically significant coarser-grained deposits within cay lagoon sediment cores allows us to determine which historic TCs likely generated event layers (tempestites) archived in the sediment record. Our compilation frequency analysis indicates one active interval (above-normal TC activity) from 1740-1950 CE and one quiet interval (below-normal TC activity) from 850-1018 CE. The active and quiet intervals in the Pelican Cays composite record are anticorrelated with those from nearby and re-analyzed TC records to the north, including the Great Blue Hole (∼100 km north) and the Northeast Yucatan (∼380 km northwest). This site-specific anticorrelation in TC activity along the western Caribbean indicates that we cannot rely on any one single TC record to represent regional TC activity. However, we cannot discount that these anticorrelated periods between the western Caribbean sites are due to randomness. To confirm that the anticorrelation in TC activity among sites from the western Caribbean is indeed a function of climate change and not randomness, an integration of more records and TC model simulations over the past millennium is necessary to assess the significance of centennial-scale variability in TC activity recorded in reconstructions from the western Caribbean. • Grain size analysis on sediment cores from the Pelican Cays, Belize, reconstruct tropical cyclone events over the past 1200 years. • The Pelican Cays experienced increased tropical cyclone activity from 1740‐1950 CE, and decreased tropical cyclone activity from 850‐1018 CE. • During 1200-1400 CE and 1740-1920 CE, tropical cyclone activity for the Pelican Cays is anticorrelated with nearby sites to the north. • We identified periods of TC correlation (1200-1400 CE and 1400-1700 CE) and one period of anticorrelation (1900 CE-present) in the North Atlantic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strong tropical cyclones directly devastate forest habitats and indirectly affect forest-dependent animals. Many forecast models suggest cyclone intensity and size will increase as a result of climate change, and cyclone frequency also may increase. Short-term effects of strong cyclones on vertebrate assemblages are well documented, but we know little about longer-term effects. From 1997 to 2013 we monitored avian assemblages at tropical forest in southern Belize, a forest that was largely destroyed by category 4 Hurricane Iris in October 2001. We found little change in recruitment or species richness, but evenness dropped markedly the first two sampling efforts after the hurricane and species turnover (β diversity) did not stabilize until 6–9 years afterward. Body condition dropped immediately after the hurricane passed but recovered quickly. That population size of resident tropical, but not Neotropical migrant, bird species dropped across our 17-year study highlights the potential urgency of altered cyclonic activity: on average, a hurricane strikes Belize once per decade, yet an increase in frequency, to say nothing of destructive power, could serve to erode extant species associations, lead to local extirpation of forest-dependent species, and create novel, transitory assemblages whose chief characteristic is instability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of tektite-like glasses from a geographically restricted area in Belize (Central America) has been known for several decades. We comprehensively studied 18 such Belize glasses by a variety of petrographic and geochemical methods, including major and trace element analysis, radiogenic isotopic composition (Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Re-Os), water content, oxidation state, and cosmogenic radionuclides. The aims were to determine their compositional variation, their mode of formation and possible source rocks, and their relation to known tektites, and to search for evidence of an extraterrestrial component. In terms of petrography, the samples are similar to tektites from the four "classical" strewn fields, with the presence of lechatelierites, schlieren, and vesicles; these are also widely accepted indicators of an impact origin. No close similarities to volcanic glasses are evident. Water contents are very low, and iron oxidation states are mostly reduced, in both cases similar to observations for other tektites. The geochemical and isotopic data presented, such as Cr, Co and Ni elemental abundances and interelement ratios, as well as trace element patterns are typical for local and regional volcanics from the active Central American Arc. Particular similarities to material comparable to volcanic rocks from Honduras or Guatemala are noted. This is confirmed by Sr-Nd isotope signatures of the Belize glasses, showing close similarities to Central American volcanics in general, and Honduran and Guatemalan volcanic, in particular. Osmium concentrations and 187Os/188Os ratios are comparable to arc volcanics from world-wide locations, but - in a few of the samples - elevated Ir concentrations, near-chondritic Pt/Ir and 187Os/188Os ratios can also be interpreted with the admixture of a minor meteoritic component to some of the Belize samples. 10Be concentrations are consistent with values typical of both, young or deeply buried soils and with values for Central American volcanics, which carry subducted 10Be. Geochemical data clearly indicate a source different from that of the Australasian tektites. Both isotope data sets for the Belize glasses indicate a close relationship to local arc lavas, especially those from Guatemala and Honduras, suggesting that the glasses were not deposited very far from their source. The main evidence that the Belize glasses are of impact origin are their petrographic characteristics and low water content. The evidence from 10Be is consistent with, but does not require, a model of formation for the Belize glasses by an impact on loosely consolidated surface sediments exposed to rain. A probable meteoritic component is low and heterogeneously distributed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been a growing interest in the use of EQ-5D health outcomes measures in Latin America and the Caribbean. Population norms data provide a benchmark against which clinicians, researchers, and policy makers can compare the health status of patient, treatment, or demographic groups. This study aimed to provide EQ-5D-5L population norms for Belize. The EQ-5D-5L questionnaire was included in a national survey in Belize in 2014. The survey also captured key demographic variables. EQ-5D-5L health states, EQ-5D visual analog scale (EQ VAS) scores, and EQ-5D-5L index values (based on the Trinidad and Tobago value set) were obtained for key demographic groups in Belize. A representative sample of 2078 respondents completed the survey. The mean index value, EQ VAS score, and ceiling level for Belize were 0.947, 82.6, and 67.8%, respectively. Similar to other Caribbean countries, Belizeans self-reported relatively high EQ VAS scores and ceiling levels compared with non-Caribbean regions. Men reported generally higher health status than women, health status declined as age rises, and the dimensions with the highest burden were pain/discomfort and mobility. This study provides researchers and practitioners in Belize with tools to use EQ-5D-5L. Users can apply the EQ VAS scores and EQ-5D-5L states presented herein as reference values. Until an EQ-5D-5L value set is created for Belize, the Trinidad and Tobago index values can be applied to Belizean-reported EQ-5D-5L states, which can then be compared with the index values presented in this study. • There has been a growing interest in the use of EQ-5D in the English-speaking Caribbean. • This study provides EQ-5D population norms values for clinicians, researchers, and policy makers wishing to use EQ-5D in Belize. • The study found some similarities between Belize and other Caribbean countries in health status and perceptions about health, along with some unique characteristics of population health in Belize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Triatoma dimidiata in Belize fed on at least 13 vertebrate species including humans. • Trypanosoma cruzi TcI and TcIV parasite discrete typing units were detected. • Parasite sequences from Belize differed from sequences from North and South America. • T. dimidiata harbored a diverse bacterial microbiota with ontogenic changes. In Belize, the main vector for Trypanosoma cruzi , the agent of Chagas disease, is Triatoma dimidiata , but transmission cycles and the risk for human infection are unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify T. dimidiata blood feeding sources and its parasite and microbial diversity, in order to reconstruct T. cruzi parasite transmission ecology in southern Belize. A metabarcoding approach based on deep sequencing of markers was used for bug taxonomy, blood meal sources, T. cruzi genotypes, and microbiota composition. Bugs were collected in 13 villages of Toledo district. Bugs fed on at least 13 species, from domestic hosts such as humans, dogs, cows, and pigs, to synanthropic species such as mice, rats, and opossums, and sylvatic species such as deer, peccary, and kinkajou, in agreement with an opportunistic feeding behavior. Nonetheless, most feeding focused on a few species, including humans. Infection with T. cruzi was detected in 24 of 39 bugs (62%), and the analysis of 242 T. cruzi mini-exon sequences (average 10 ± 5 haplotypes per bug) indicated the presence of TcI and TcIV parasite discrete typing units (DTUs). However, for both DTUs, sequences from Belize mostly clustered apart from sequences from North and South America, suggesting the local differentiation of parasites. T. dimidiata also harbored a diverse bacterial microbiota, with ontogenic changes suggesting microbiota maturation during nymphal development. Together, these results indicate a significant risk for T. cruzi infection in humans. They also highlight the need to better characterize the diversity of T. cruzi strains in the region and its impact on disease epidemiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Belize Basin in southern Belize, Central America, contains numerous seepage oils derived from marly and carbonate source rocks, but since no definitive source rocks have been identified the source remains uncertain. This study examines by pyrolysis and organic petrography the source rock quality and maturity of 66 samples collected from three newly exposed carbonate sections in the southeastern Belize Basin together with organic geochemical analysis of five new occurrences of seepage oils from the southern Belize Basin. Combined ammonite and aptychi biostratigraphy suggest a Berriasian to Hauterivian age of the source rock samples. Low T max values show the samples are thermally immature. Numerous samples are oil-prone and have Hydrogen Index values >300–400 mg HC/g TOC, reaching a maximum of 768 mg HC/g TOC. The samples with source rock potential contain from 32 to 64% pyrolysable organic carbon and contains liptinite-rich Type II kerogen consisting of alginite, bituminite, and liptodetrinite. The calculated Ultimate Expulsion Potential (UEP) of a 22.5 m thick section amounts to ∼2.5 mmboe/km2. This generation capacity is volumetrically relatively small, but it could be compensated for by a thicker source rock section. However, the identified source rocks could account for the seepage oils in the Belize Basin, and they are thus the first documentation of Lower Cretaceous source rocks in Belize. A plausible explanation for the widespread occurrence of seepage oils in the Belize Basin could be generation from organic-rich layers with bituminite and alginite. In line with this and previously examined seepage oils, the new variably degraded oils were sourced from carbonate source rock facies. • First documentation of Lower Cretaceous carbonate source rocks in the Belize Basin • The source rocks are oil-prone and have Hydrogen Index values >300–400 mg HC/g TOC, reaching a maximum of 768 mg HC/g TOC • The Type II kerogen consists of alginite, bituminite, and liptodetrinite with 32–64% of the carbon being pyrolysable • Five new seepage oils are variably degraded and were sourced from a carbonate source rock facies • The source rocks are thermally immature but the seepage oils could be generated from similar mature carbonate facies [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addition to zoonotic viral pathogens, bats can also harbor bacterial pathogens, including hemoplasmas (hemotropic mycoplasmas) and Coxiella burnetii. The present study aimed to investigate, using molecular techniques, the presence of hemoplasmas and C. burnetii in spleen samples from vampire bats in northern Brazil. For this purpose, between 2017 and 2019, spleen samples were collected from Desmodus rotundus (n = 228) and Diaemus youngii (n = 1) captured in the states of Pará (n = 207), Amazonas (n = 1), Roraima (n = 18) and Amapá (n = 3). DNA samples extracted from the bat spleen and positive in PCR for the endogenous gapdh gene were subjected to conventional PCR assays for the 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA and RNAse P genes from hemoplasmas and to qPCR based on the IS1111 gene element for C. burnetii. All spleen samples from vampire bats were negative in the qPCR for C. burnetii. Hemoplasmas were detected in 10 % (23/229) of spleen samples using a PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. Of these, 21.73 % (5/23) were positive for the 23S rRNA gene and none for the RNAseP gene. The seven hemoplasma 16S rRNA sequences obtained were closely related to sequences previously identified in vampire bats from Belize, Peru and Brazil. The 23S rRNA sequence obtained revealed genetic proximity to hemoplasmas from non-hematophagous bats from Brazil and Belize. The analysis revealed different circulating genotypes among Brazilian vampire bats, in addition to a trend towards genera-specific hemoplasma genotypes. The present study contributes to the knowledge of the wide diversity of hemoplasmas in vampire bats. • All 229 vampire bats spleen samples were negative in the qPCR for Coxiella burnetii (IS1111 gene element). • Hemoplasmas 16S rDNA was detected in 10 % (23/229) of spleen samples. • Different hemoplasma 16S rRNA genotypes were found among vampire bats from northern Brazil. • Wide genetic diversity of hemoplasma 16S rRNA genotypes among bats worldwide, with a trend towards host genera-specific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Myiasis, as defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, is infection with fly larvae commonly occurring in tropical and subtropical areas. Whereas the presentation of skin infection with organisms such as Dermatobia hominis (human botfly) is more easily recognized in these regions, identification of myiasis in the United States is difficult due to its rarity. Due to unspecific signs and symptoms, myiasis may initially be mistaken for other conditions, like cellulitis.Case Report: This case details a patient with pain, swelling, drainage, and erythema of the right second toe. The patient recently returned from Belize and reported an insect bite to the area approximately 1 month prior. She had been seen by health care professionals twice prior to presenting to our Emergency Department (ED) due to increasing pain. At those visits, the patient was prescribed antibiotics, failing to improve her symptoms. In the ED, point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) of the soft tissue was performed and showed evidence of a foreign body consistent with cutaneous myiasis. Given the patient's history of travel to Belize and known insect bite, it is prudent to have an increased suspicion for cutaneous myiasis. WHY SHOULD AN EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN BE AWARE OF THIS?: To prevent a delay in diagnosis and unnecessary antibiotics, clinicians should have a high level of suspicion for botfly if a patient reports recent travel in an endemic region and pain disproportionate to an insect bite. POCUS contributes to a more efficient recognition of the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To describe the anesthetic and adverse effects of an injectable anesthetic protocol in dogs as part of a high-volume sterilization program under field conditions in Belize. Prospective, observational, field study. A total of 23 female and eight male dogs (14.2 ± 7.7 kg; age ≥ 8 weeks). Using a volume per kg-based dose chart, dogs were administered ketamine (4.5 mg kg−1), medetomidine (0.04 mg kg−1) and hydromorphone (0.09 mg kg−1) intramuscularly. After induction of anesthesia, an endotracheal tube was inserted and dogs were allowed spontaneous breathing in room air. Monitoring included peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO 2), mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), respiratory rate, rectal temperature and end-tidal carbon dioxide (P e′ CO 2). Meloxicam (0.2 mg kg−1) was administered subcutaneously after surgery. Data were analyzed with linear models and chi-square tests (p < 0.05). Onset of lateral recumbency (3.4 ± 2 minutes) was rapid. Desaturation (SpO 2 < 90%) was observed at least once in 64.5% of dogs and was more frequent in large dogs (p = 0.019). Hypercapnia (P e′ CO 2 ≥ 50 mmHg; 6.7 kPa) was observed in 48.4% of dogs. MAP was 111 ± 19 mmHg, mean ± standard deviation. Hypertension (MAP ≥ 120 mmHg), bradycardia (HR ≤ 60 beats minute−1) and tachycardia (HR ≥ 140 beats minute−1) were observed in 45.2%, 16.1% and 3.3% of dogs, respectively. Hypotension and hypothermia were not observed. Sex was not significantly associated with any complication. Return of swallowing reflex and time to standing were 71 ± 23 and 152 ± 50 minutes after injection, respectively. Return of swallowing was significantly longer in large dogs. At the doses used, ketamine–medetomidine–hydromorphone was effective in dogs for high-volume sterilization. In this field setting, adverse effects included hypoventilation, hypoxemia and prolonged recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Grain and precipitate sizes and spatial distribution individually varied. • The distributions, as opposed to a single parameter, linked to magnetic parameters. • Their separate and interactive effects on the magnetic parameters investigated. • A critical size for effective pinning to domain walls determined. • Another critical size for strongest pinning to domain walls determined. Abstract Grain size and precipitates have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of steels and it is desirable to be able to characterise these in a non-destructive manner. Grain and precipitate sizes and their spatial distributions in both an extra-low-carbon steel and a laboratory model steel have been individually varied and compared with a variety of characteristic magnetic parameters measured from major and minor magnetisation loops. These magnetic parameters are shown to be very sensitive to grain size distribution when there are no precipitates within the grains. However, the magnetic parameters exhibit complex behaviours with precipitate size distribution, which is linked to a critical precipitate size for effective pinning and another critical precipitate size for strongest pinning to domain walls. The interaction between grain size and precipitate distribution effects on the minor loop properties in the studied steels are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A bulk magnet based on Sm-Fe-V with the ThMn 12 crystal structure has been fabricated for the first time by hot-compaction of mechanically milled powders with a density of 92% of the theoretical density. The isotropic magnet exhibits a maximum coercivity of 1.06 T with a magnetization of 0.59 T, a remanent magnetization of 0.42 T and a (BH) max of 28 kJ m−3 at 3 T applied field. The Curie temperature is found to be 330 °C and the temperature coefficients of remanent magnetization and coercivity are 0.14% C−1 and 0.39% C−1, respectively. Minor hysteresis loops indicate a coercivity mechanism similar to that of the nanocrystalline Nd-Fe-B magnets. The isotropic magnet was hot-deformed up to 75% of its height, and the best magnetic properties obtained were μ 0 M 3T = 0.63 T, μ 0 M r = 0.45 T, μ 0 H c = 0.88 T and (BH) max = 33 kJ m−3. A small texture perpendicular to compaction direction was detected when the amount of vanadium was reduced, and the deformation temperature was increased from 800 to 1000 °C. • First hot compacted Sm-Fe-V based 1:12 isotropic magnet has been produced. • First hot deformed Sm-Fe-V based 1:12 magnet with some small degree of anisotropy. • Magnets coercivity reaches 1 T and energy product (BH)max = 33 kJ m−3. • Temperature coefficients of remanence and coercivity are 0.14%°C−1 and 0.39%°C−1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Usage of neonicotinoids is common in all agricultural regions of the world but data on environmental contamination in tropical regions is scarce. We conducted a survey of five neonicotinoids in soil, water and sediment samples along gradients from crops fields to protected lowland tropical forest, mangroves and wetlands in northern Belize, a region of high biodiversity value. Neonicotinoid frequency of detection and concentrations were highest in soil (68%) and lowest in water (12%). Imidacloprid was the most common residue reaching a maximum of 17.1 ng/g in soil samples. Concentrations in soils differed among crop types, being highest in melon fields and lowest in banana and sugarcane fields. Residues in soil declined with distance to the planted fields, with clothianidin being detected at 100 m and imidacloprid at more than 10 km from the nearest applied field. About half (47%) of the sediments collected contained residues of at least one compound up to 10 km from the source. Total neonicotinoid concentrations in sediments (range 0.014–0.348 ng/g d. w.) were about 10 times lower than in soils from the fields, with imidacloprid being the highest (0.175 ng/g). A probabilistic risk assessment of the residues in the aquatic environment indicates that 31% of sediment samples pose a risk to invertebrate aquatic and benthic organisms by chronic exposure, whereas less than 5% of sediment samples may incur a risk by acute exposure. Current residue levels in water samples do not appear to pose risks to the aquatic fauna. Fugacity modeling of the four main compounds detected suggest that most of the dissipation from the agricultural fields occurs via runoff and leaching through the porous soils of this region. We call for better monitoring of pesticide contamination and invertebrate inventories and finding alternatives to the use of neonicotinoids in agriculture. Image 1 • A survey and risk assessment of neonicotinoids in Belize. • We measured neonicotinoids in soil, sediment and water in northern Belize • Neonicotinoid residue levels were highest in soils of planted crops • Frequency of residues declined from soil (68%) to sediment (47%) and water (12%) • Concentrations in soil and sediment decreased with distance to field • 31% of sediment samples may pose a risk to aquatic invertebrates by chronic exposure Neonicotinoid residues found in wetlands of a Neotropical Nature Reserve pose a risk to aquatic invertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The synthesis, structures and spectroscopic properties of M(MeOCH 2 CH 2 OMe 2 Si) 3 C BH 3 (M- 1 -BH 3) and M(MeOCH 2 CH 2 OMe 2 Si) 3 Si BH 3 (M- 2 -BH 3) (M = Li, Na, K) derived from reactions of BH 3 with the alkali metal zwitterions [M(MeOCH 2 CH 2 OMe 2 Si) 3 C] (M- 1) and [M(MeOCH 2 CH 2 OMe 2 Si) 3 Si] (M- 2) (M = Li, Na, K), resp., are reported. X-ray analysis and DFT calculations reveal discrete zwitterionic structures with the octahedral alkali metal cations rigidly locked and charge separated from the BH 3 units via pendant donors groups. Solution experiments with the hydride acceptors B(C 6 F 5) 3 and [Ph 3 C] 2 [B 12 C 12 ] indicate that Na- 1 -BH 3 can donate hydrides to form cations of formula [Na(MeOCH 2 CH 2 OMe 2 Si) 3 C BH 2 ]+. Graphical abstract Image 1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper studies the virtual network function placement (VNF-P) problem in the context of network function virtualization (NFV), where the end-to-end delay of a requested service function chain (SFC) is minimized and the compute, storage, I/O and bandwidth resources are considered. To address this problem, an integer encoding grey wolf optimizer (IEGWO) is proposed. IEGWO has two significant features, namely an integer encoding scheme and a new wolf position update mechanism. The integer encoding scheme is problem-specific and offers a natural way to represent VNF-P solutions. The proposed wolf position update mechanism divides the wolf pack into two groups in each iteration, where one group performs exploitation while the other focuses on global exploration. It provides the search with a balanced local exploitation and global exploration during evolution. Performance evaluation has been conducted based on 20 test instances and IEGWO is compared with five state-of-the-art meta-heuristics, including the black hole algorithm (BH), the genetic algorithm (GA), the group counseling optimization (GCO), the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and the teaching–learning-based optimization (TLBO). Simulation results demonstrate that compared with BH, GA, GCO, PSO and TLBO, IEGWO achieves significantly better solution quality regarding the mean (standard deviation), boxplot and t-test results of the best fitness values obtained. Graphical abstract Highlights • Study the virtual network function placement problem in a NFV environment. • Propose an integer grey wolf optimizer (IEGWO) with a new wolf position update mechanism. • IEGWO outperforms a number of evolutionary algorithms regarding the solution quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The primary objective of this paper is to determine whether tourists are willing to pay (WTP) fees to support conservation in Belize and, if so, to determine their maximum willingness to pay. This is an important issue for Belize and for all countries that heavily rely on the quality of their environmental resources to attract tourists. From 1996 to 2017, the Protected Areas Conservation Trust (PACT) has charged a $3.75US conservation fee to all tourists upon their departure from Belize. In April of 2017, this fee was raised to $20.00US, but not without controversy. In May 2012, February 2013, and again in May 2014 almost 400 tourists were surveyed to determine if raising the fee was possible and by how much. Results suggest a significant percentage of tourists are willing to pay for conservation in Belize; many in excess of the current fee of $20.00US. So far, the increased fee does appear to have had any impact on tourism arrivals. This empirical observation, combined with the results of this paper, are important pieces of information as it relates to conservation finance in Belize and has potential implications for conservation finance in other tropical destinations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract We compare the geomorphology and soil of two ancient Maya wetland agricultural complexes in modern day Belize. This paper focuses on 3000 years of soil geomorphology and paleoecological change to determine the chronology of wetland formation and human use in this region. We also characterize Maya manipulation of the environment over time, especially considering times of ecological or climactic change in the late Holocene. This paper adds to our ongoing research in northwestern Belize, specifically within two recently explored wetland agricultural systems, Neuendorf and Sierra de Agua. Although they are 40 km from one another and in different watersheds, they have similar water chemistry and comparable soil, as well as comparable ancient Maya agricultural field and canal stratigraphy. The Neuendorf wetland fields and associated Maya house mounds and platforms are 1.5 km northeast of the well-studied Chan Cahal residential group/wetland agricultural fields. This ancient Maya settlement zone sits on a small limestone escarpment, about 7–24 m above sea level on the Belizean coastal plain. New trenches and vibracores from this wetland complex support our previous models of wetland formation and human use from the Late Preclassic to the end of the Classic. The Sierra de Agua wetland fields, 40 km to the southwest, are associated with a Maya urban center of the same name. This complex is part of the Irish Creek Wetlands within the New River watershed. In this system, the water table rose around 3000 years before present, which resulted in a different type of field building and agricultural modification, similar to the chinampas models of central Mexico. This new and ongoing research contributes new pollen records, soils and geoarchaeology to the growing regional picture of wetland use and change throughout Maya history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Sugarcane is the most important crop for the economy of Belize. Sugar is Belize's largest contributor to the agricultural sector with exports approximating US$70,000,000 for the year 2015. The biomass residue from the sugar production process, bagasse, is used to generate electricity through cogeneration. The single cogeneration plant in the country contributes about 15% of electricity to the national grid. Belize currently imports about 42% of its electric energy needs from Mexico, and to date, this is the country's most reliable energy source. With energy needs of the country projected to rise at a rate of 4% per annum, and with the costly import of energy, there exists the need to explore the expansion of co- generation energy technologies to increase local energy generation output to the national grid. The current work reviews the state of bagasse cogeneration in Belize and assess its potential for further expansion. Highlights • Bagasse cogeneration presents an opportunity to reduce its energy dependency. • Two companies currently present pathways for development of aforementioned cogeneration technologies. • Other studies have shown that investment in cogeneration technologies presents opportunity for economic and social growth. • Investment in this sector in Belize could lead to savings of 3.9 million US dollars per year in energy costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Because of the recent increase in type 2 diabetes and the need for complementary treatments in remote communities in many parts of the world, we undertook a study of treatments for diabetic symptoms used by traditional Q’eqchi’ Maya healers of Belize. We used quantitative ethnobotany to rank culturally important taxa and subsequent pharmacological and phytochemical studies to assess bioactivity. Materials and methods Antidiabetic plants identified in field interviews with traditional healers were ranked by syndromic importance value (SIV) based on 15 symptoms of diabetes. Species ranked with high SIV were tested in an assay relevant to many diabetes complications, the advanced glycation endproduct (AGE) inhibition assay. Active principles were identified by phytochemical analysis and bioassay. Results We collected over 70 plant species having a promising SIV score. The plants represented a broad range of neotropical taxa. Selected Q’eqchi’ antidiabetic plants with high SIV were collected in bulk and tested in the advanced glycation endproduct (AGE) inhibition assay. All plant extracts showed AGE inhibition and the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) ranged from 40.8 to 733 µg/mL, while the most active species was Tynanthus guatemalensis Donn (Bignoniaceae). A linear regression showed a significant relationship between 1/ IC 50 and SIV. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of verbascoside, as a major component and active principle of the T guatemalensis which had an IC 50 = 5.1 µg/mL, comparable to the positive control quercetin. Conclusion The results reveal a rich botanical tradition of antidiabetic symptom treatments among the Q’eqchi’. Study of highly ranked plants revealed their activity in AGE inhibition correlated with SIV. T. guatemalensis was identified as a promising species for further evaluation and local use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, marginal lands, or less favored areas (LFAs), cover significant areas with large human populations, yet are relegated in policy making due to their perceived low agricultural value and a lack of information about other ecosystem services (ES) they may provide. Here we applied a simple, inclusive and qualitative ES inventory and Bayesian Belief Network modelling approach to a neo-tropical savanna LFA in Belize to assess its ES benefits, and potential trade-offs from future conversion to agriculture or a protected area. We found that consulting a broader selection of stakeholders elicited a more diverse range of ES, beyond the agricultural provisioning services considered in government planning. Further, the majority of the ES identified were accessed informally and so may be diminished under land use alternatives that formalize land tenure. We argue that, given the similar context of other LFAs, and the wider applicability of our technique, these findings have broader significance in the natural resource management and ES assessment field. Generally, we argue that simple qualitative ES analyses can efficiently provide useful planning information, and can assess how land use changes may impact local livelihoods. We argue that such methods can help improve natural resource management in LFAs and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New research on soil catenas under old growth tropical forest in NW Belize aims to understand soil formation, long-term human impacts, and slope stability over time. We studied areas with intensive ancient Maya impacts from 3000 to 1000 years ago and those with little ancient impact to compare how ancient land-use influenced slopes after about 1000 years of stable tropical forest cover. We characterized the physical, chemical and chronological characteristics of soils at crest/shoulders, backslopes, footslopes, and depression locations, analyzing typical soil parameters and carbon isotopes (δ 13 C) in dated and undated sequences. Several of the footslope and depressions sites preserved evidence of buried paleosols with increased δ 13 C dating (by four new AMS dates and three others we reported earlier) from the Maya Classic period, with high amounts of soil organic matter from C 4 species in ecosystems where only a few C 4 species occur today. Most crest/shoulders and backslopes had no evidence for increased δ 13 C, though some crests and mid-slope sinks preserved evidence of ancient Maya impacts. The observation that steep slopes preserved no evidence of C 4 species inputs may mean that ancient Maya land use maintained forest reserves here. Alternatively, ancient Maya land uses caused slope erosion, with the δ 13 C signatures detected today resulting from more recent soil development under forest and soil re-formation over the last millennium. Additional evidence that these soils are recent in age includes elevated CaCO 3 , Sr, and low soil magnetic susceptibility, showing less leaching compared with older soils in our study. Other human impacts on soils include increased concentrations of Fe and Mn, terracing, and further evidence of substantial topsoil erosion in antiquity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• First molecular detection of Neorickettsia sp. in vampire bats. • Low molecular occurrence of hemoplasmas and Neorickettsia sp. was verified in vampire bats in Brazil. • Three (1.51%; 3/198) liver samples were positive for Neorickettsia sp. • Twelve (6.06%; 12/198) liver samples from hematophagous bats were positive for hemoplasmas. • High diversity of 16S rRNA genotypes was verified among bats hemoplasmas. Bats (Mammalia, Chiroptera) represent the second largest group of mammals. Due to their ability to fly and adapt and colonize different niches, bats act as reservoirs of several potentially zoonotic pathogens. In this context, the present work aimed to investigate, using molecular techniques, the occurrence of blood-borne agents (Anaplasmataceae, Coxiella burnetii , hemoplasmas, hemosporidians and piroplasmids) in 198 vampire bats sampled in different regions of Brazil and belonging to the species Desmodus rotundus (n = 159), Diphylla ecaudata (n = 31) and Diaemus youngii (n = 8). All vampire bats liver samples were negative in PCR assays for Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., piroplasmids, hemosporidians and Coxiella burnetii. However, Neorickettsia sp. was detected in liver samples of 1.51% (3/198) through nested PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene in D. rotundus and D. ecaudata. This is the first study to report Neorickettsia sp. in vampire bats. Hemoplasmas were detected in 6.06% (12/198) of the liver samples using a PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. The two 16S rRNA sequences obtained from hemoplasmas were closely related to sequences previously identified in vampire and non-hematophagous bats from Belize, Peru and Brazil. The genotypic analysis identified a high diversity of bat-associated hemoplasma genotypes from different regions of the world, emphasizing the need for studies on this subject, in order to better understand the mechanisms of co-evolution between this group of bacteria and their vertebrate hosts. The role of neotropical bat-associated Neorickettsia sp. and bats from Brazil in the biological cycle of such agent warrant further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economics provides a useful conceptual framework from which to consider the great variety of welfare improving values created and stewarded by marine and coastal protected areas. Many marine and coastal protected areas have been dependent upon international tourism revenues to cover operating expenses and fuel economic development in relatively undiversified island economies. The COVID-19 pandemic drastically reduced the flow of international tourism dollars. We find crowdfunding is a promising strategy to capture nonuse value from altruistic and philanthropic donations of beneficiaries worldwide and a means to diversify finance streams for protected area management. BIOFIN adapted the UNDP crowdfunding methodology to address an urgent and critical need for short term funding to support protected areas at marine and coastal sites in Belize, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Philippines, and Thailand that resulted in more than $2 million in charitable donations across the five campaigns in 2020-2. A common methodological approach to campaign design and implementation facilitated a comparative reflection and analysis of the five campaigns by their managers, the authors of this paper. The five BIOFIN crowdfunding campaigns varied in terms of specific need addressed, global reputation of the site, financial scale and geopolitical scope, primary sources and degree of success in attracting donations and distributing funds, leverage and staying power, and traceable biodiversity outcomes. As the first review of pandemic relief crowdfunding campaigns for marine and coastal protected areas, we hope it can serve to begin to synthesize and transfer lessons learnt to additional locations and ecosystems in need. • 5 crowdfunding campaigns generated $2 million in charitable giving (nonuse value) pandemic relief protected area support. • Income replacement payments to tourism dependent people helped economic and ecological sustainability during the pandemic. • Funds supported key biodiversity rich marine and coastal sites in Belize, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Philippines, and Thailand. • Key lessons on financial diversification, investment, marketing, partnerships, and legacy can be gleaned from these 5 cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are globally underfunded. We present a five-step framework that can help practitioners prioritize actions that may improve financial sustainability, which was applied to six MPAs in Colombia, Bonaire, and Belize. Limited funds were found to directly undermine effectiveness towards conservation goals for five sites, with these impacts particularly significant for four. Annual budgets required increases from 6 % to 141 % to meet financial needs. Two sites had significant underlying weaknesses in their financial strategies that could lead to direct impacts if not addressed, with an additional three sites having more minor, but still observable, weaknesses in this manner. Staff salaries were the largest expense for all MPAs examined and also most frequently in need of additional funds. Opportunities to potentially eliminate these funding gaps were identified for all six MPAs through reallocating existing resources (n = 2), improving in-place mechanisms (n = 6), or implementing one or more alternative mechanisms (n = 6). Among several findings, some MPAs had the potential to increase tourism-based income by several million dollars per year, which would well exceed local financial requirements and could have substantial financial benefits on a network-wide scale. Some MPAs, including those with lower budgets, effectively leveraged partnerships and inter-institutional coordination to expand management capacity. Among alternative mechanisms that could be implemented, opportunities to leverage private-sector investments were especially common. Other MPAs around the world could likewise improve financial sustainability through analysis, evaluation, and execution of the full suite of options described herein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seagrass beds have historically received little to no management attention, contributing to significant declines in their extent globally. Recently, seagrass beds, and other blue carbon ecosystems, have gained greater management attention due to their potentially critical role in climate mitigation. Therefore, some countries, such as Belize in 2021, have included blue carbon ecosystems within their Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). To date, no specific regulations exist to manage seagrass beds in Belize; however, there is a plan to develop a national seagrass policy. In support of this effort and to gain a better understanding of institutions' current knowledge and perceptions regarding seagrass beds and their management, as well their experiences with community engagement, we conducted interviews with six Belizean management institutions (two government departments, four non-government organizations) involved in marine resource management. Respondents perceived seagrass beds as important, identifying climate mitigation and fisheries as critical ecosystem services. They saw the importance of managing and protecting seagrass beds, and identified several direct (e.g., dredging) and indirect (e.g., land-based pollution) threats. Also highlighted were several management challenges, with governance structure identified as a major one; seagrass beds can fall under the purview of several government departments, which has jurisdictional implications. Interviewees discussed challenges and opportunities regarding community engagement, and they desired greater community inclusion within marine resource management at planning and implementation phases. Based on these findings, we build on existing management frameworks to present one that can foster just and equitable seagrass policy, management, and social-ecological outcomes. • Seagrass beds considered to be healthy and an important natural climate solution. • Governance structures pose one of the greatest challenges for seagrass management. • Community engagement often involves socialization rather than inclusion. • Future policy should address governance, inclusion, and management scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Folate deficiency, vitamin B-12 deficiency, and anemia can have adverse effects on birth outcomes. Also, low vitamin B-12 reduces the formation of metabolically active folate.Objectives: We sought to establish the baseline prevalence of and factors associated with folate deficiency and insufficiency, vitamin B-12 deficiency, and anemia among women of childbearing age (WCBA) in Belize.Methods: In 2011, a national probability-based survey was completed among Belizean nonpregnant WCBA aged 15-49 y. Blood samples for determination of hemoglobin, folate (RBC and serum), and vitamin B-12 (plasma) and sociodemographic and health information were collected from 937 women. RBC and serum folate concentrations were measured by microbiologic assay (MBA). Folate status was defined based on both the WHO-recommended radioproteinbinding assay and the assay adjusted for the MBA.Results: The national prevalence estimates for folate deficiency in WCBA, based on serum and RBC folate concentrations by using the assay-matched cutoffs, were 11.0% (95% CI: 8.6%, 14.0%) and 35.1% (95% CI: 31.3%, 39.2%), respectively. By using the assay-matched compared with the WHO-recommended cutoffs, a substantially higher prevalence of folate deficiency was observed based on serum (6.9% absolute difference) and RBC folate (28.9% absolute difference) concentrations. The prevalence for RBC folate insufficiency was 48.9% (95% CI: 44.8%, 53.1%). Prevalence estimates for vitamin B-12 deficiency and marginal deficiency and anemia were 17.2% (95% CI: 14.2%, 20.6%), 33.2% (95% CI: 29.6%, 37.1%), and 22.7% (95% CI: 19.5%, 26.2%), respectively. The adjusted geometric means of the RBC folate concentration increased significantly (P-trend < 0.001) in WCBA who had normal vitamin B-12 status relative to WCBA who were vitamin B-12 deficient.Conclusions: In Belize, the prevalence of folate and vitamin B-12 deficiencies continues to be a public health concern among WCBA. Furthermore, low folate status co-occurred with low vitamin B-12 status, underlining the importance of providing adequate vitamin B-12 and folic acid intake through approaches such as mandatory food fortification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research at the Maya archaeological site of Marco Gonzalez on Ambergris Caye in Belize is socio-ecological because human activities have been a factor in the formation and fluctuation of the local marine and terrestrial environments over time. The site is one of many on Belize's coast and cayes that exhibit anomalous vegetation and dark-coloured soils. These soils, although sought for cultivation, are not typical ‘Amazonian Dark Earths’ but instead are distinctive to the weathering of carbonate-rich anthropogenic deposits. We tentatively term these location-specific soils as Maya Dark Earths. Our research seeks to quantify the role of human activities in long-term environmental change and to develop strategies, specifically Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), that can be applied to environmental impact modelling today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decisions regarding the selection and implementation of management strategies that constrain fishing pressure can be among the most difficult choices that fisheries managers and stakeholders must make. These types of decisions often need to be confronted in a data-limited context, where few if any management measures are currently in place or fisheries are managed independent of adequate scientific advice. This situation can sometimes create a high risk of overfishing and potential loss of economic and social benefits. To address this situation, simple model-free indicator-based frameworks have the potential to be effective decision-making platforms for fisheries where quantitative estimates of biomass and fishing mortality based reference points are lacking. In this paper, a multi-indicator framework is developed that enables decision-makers to proceed with management decisions in data-limited situations. Model-free indicators are calculated using trends in observed data, rather than stock assessment derived estimates of biomass and fishing mortality. The framework developed is adaptive so that adjustments to catch or effort are recursive and can respond to changing environments, socioeconomic conditions, and fishing practices. Using stakeholder-defined objectives as a foundation, indicators and reference points of fishery performance are chosen that can be evaluated easily by undertaking analyses of available data. Indicators from multiple data streams are used so that uncertainty in one indicator can be hedged through careful interpretation and corroboration of information from alternative indicators. During the adaptive management cycle, managers and stakeholders evaluate each indicator against the associated reference points to determine performance measures, interpret the results using scientific and local knowledge, and adjust fishery management tactics accordingly using pre-defined harvest control rules. The framework facilitates the interpretation of situations in which performance measures suggest divergent stock abundance or productivity levels. A case study is presented on this framework's development for conch and lobster fisheries of Belize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is increasing global interest in the adoption of sustainable wastewater systems due to the significant human and environmental health benefits of properly treating wastewater effluents prior to being discharged into surface waters and local communities. Research demonstrates that wastewater infrastructure is sustainable only when multiple stakeholder groups are involved. Here we draw on the principles of integrated environmental resources management and sociocultural analyses to develop a framework for rapidly assessing stakeholder involvement in a proposed centralized wastewater project in Placencia, Belize. We demonstrate this framework by analyzing survey responses to measure stakeholder involvement and discuss the model’s utility to inform groupings based on similarity in engagement. We employ Brainerd-Robinson similarity coefficients to rapidly assess stakeholders’ involvement and produce a consensus score. We then evaluate the goodness of fit between these scores and correspondence analysis scatterplots. We conclude that Brainerd-Robinson scores provide a rapid means for determining relevant groupings of stakeholders, particularly in resource-scarce settings. Nuanced stakeholder groupings can inform researchers, policy makers, development workers, and community organizations about ways in which individuals are engaging with a project, providing a way to target suitable initiatives to promote sustained involvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding past climate may contribute to a better understanding of future climate change, allowing for adaptations to changing water resources. High latitude paleoclimate reconstructions reveal a warmer northern hemisphere during the mid-Holocene, yet paleoclimate records from tropical Central America are lacking, especially seasonally resolved reconstructions needed to resolve seasonal shifts. Here we reconstruct mid-Holocene precipitation using high-resolution (sub-annual to biannual) stable isotope ratios (oxygen and carbon) extracted from a speleothem recovered from Belize to investigate the frequency and magnitude of precipitation variability. We found a slight increase in precipitation during the mid-Holocene in Belize with less variability compared to the late-Holocene. This increase in precipitation may be a result of the expansion of the North Atlantic Subtropical High (NASH), which strengthens the Caribbean Lower Level Jet, enhancing westward advection of atmospheric moisture to Belize. The decrease in precipitation variability could be derived from a northward movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) placing Belize within the bounds of the ITCZ for a longer period each year. Time series analysis reveals periodicities of 200–250 years which correspond to the Suess solar cycle. The additional periods of ~ 100 and ~ 50 years also have origins in solar irradiance. The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the Atlantic Multidecadal Variability (AMV; also known as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO)), long recognized as important drivers of precipitation variability in the region, are present but only at the 90% significance level. We posit that the reduced influence of the NAO and AMV could be caused by the northerly migration of the ITCZ during the mid-Holocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of relationships between seasons and Neotropical carnivore distributions tend to focus on water and prey availability without considering other habitat components such as escape, foraging, and resting cover. Our goal was to evaluate habitat characteristics that may be important for predicting the seasonal (dry or rainy) relative abundance of four commonly captured Neotropical carnivores (i.e., jaguar [ Panthera onca ], puma [ Puma concolor ], ocelot [ Leopardus pardalis ], and grey fox [ Urocyon cinereoargenteus ]) in Chiquibul Forest Reserve in Belize, Central America. We used trail camera data and random-effect Poisson models to investigate how prey ratios (number of prey detections/total detections), cover (e.g., logs and stumps used for hiding cover from predators), vegetation structure, and environmental site characteristics (e.g., site harvest-history, slope, aspect) were related to carnivore relative abundance. Both prey ratios and vegetation structure appeared in supported models more frequently than other environmental site characteristics and were negatively correlated with carnivore relative abundance. Supported models differed for each season for all species except jaguars for which mammalian prey ratios and prey cover at sites was always negatively correlated with jaguar relative abundance. Carnivores appeared to avoid sites where vegetation created ideal escape and hiding cover for prey even though prey may be less abundant. Our data suggest that vegetation structure and composition can create conditions conducive to carnivore foraging and that these characteristics can differ by season in the tropics. • Predictors of carnivore abundance change between seasons. • Carnivores seem to avoid sites with more prey and greater vegetation density. • Carnivores appear more abundant at sites where prey are vulnerable vs. available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Located on the Caribbean coast of Central America and flanked by the second longest barrier reef in the world, Belize is a nation reliant upon marine resources. Each year, the country’s predominantly small-scale fisheries generate an estimated US$22 million in revenue – 1.8%of GDP – and employ 3000 people. However, the nation’s fishing communities are facing an unprecedented challenge. Existing threats posed by declining fish stocks have been exacerbated by the introduction of the invasive alien red lionfish Pterois volitans in 2008. This Indo-Pacific predator has the potential to cause significant losses to the recruitment of native fish, in turn disrupting coral reef community dynamics in the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Howefver, targeted lionfish fishing may offer a cost effective means to control the invasion, while also creating an alternative livelihood solution and improving food security among Belize's coastal fishing communities. This study summarises the recent history of the lionfish invasion in Belize, describes the multi-sector approach being used to address the invasion, and presents preliminary research summarising the characteristics of invasive alien lionfish in Belize. Data from Belize's nascent ‘lionfishery’ are also presented, demonstrating that demand for lionfish is outweighing supply – largely as a result of awareness-raising initiatives – and highlighting the strong potential for replication of this approach elsewhere in the Caribbean. The study concludes by discussing the barriers and potential solutions to this market-based approach to invasive species management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aragonitic speleothems are increasingly utilised as palaeoclimate archives due to their amenability to high precision U–Th dating. Proxy records from fast-growing aragonitic stalagmites, precisely dated to annual timescales, can allow investigation of climatic events occurring on annual or even sub-annual timescales with minimal chronological uncertainty. However, the behaviour of many trace elements, such as uranium, in aragonitic speleothems has not thus far been as well constrained as in calcitic speleothems. Here, we use uranium concentration shifts measured across primary calcite-to-aragonite mineralogical transitions in speleothems to calculate the distribution coefficient of uranium in aragonitic speleothems (derived D U = 3.74 ± 1.13). Because our calculated D U is considerably above 1 increased prior aragonite precipitation due to increased karst water residence time should strongly control stalagmite aragonite U/Ca values. Consequently, uranium concentrations in aragonitic speleothems should act as excellent proxies for effective rainfall. We test this using a high-resolution ICP-MS derived trace element dataset from a Belizean stalagmite. YOK-G is an aragonitic stalagmite from Yok Balum cave in Belize with an extremely robust monthly-resolved chronology built using annual δ 13 C cycles. We interpret seasonal U/Ca variations in YOK-G as reflecting changes in the amount and seasonality of prior aragonite precipitation driven by variable rainfall amounts. The U/Ca record strongly suggests that modern drying has occurred in Belize, and that this drying was primarily caused by a reduction in wet season rainfall. This is consistent with published stable isotope data from YOK-G also very strongly suggesting modern rainfall reductions, previously interpreted as the result of southward ITCZ displacement. Our results strongly suggest that U/Ca values in aragonitic speleothems are excellent proxies for rainfall variability. This new tool, combined with the exceptional chronological control characteristic of aragonitic stalagmites and the high spatial resolution afforded by modern microanalytical techniques, should facilitate the construction of new exquisitely resolved rainfall records, providing rare insights into seasonality changes as well as long-term changes in local recharge conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stalagmite MC01 was recovered from Macal Chasm cave on the Vaca Plateau of Belize in 1995, and an initial paleoclimate interpretation was published in 2007. Additional uranium-thorium ages have extended the paleoenvironmental record back from 3250 to 5250 cal yr BP, and the stable isotope (δ 18 O and δ 13 C) record is dramatically improved by 660 new values. A series of major dry events (MDEs) evident in stable isotopes, ultraviolet-stimulated luminescence, and petrography began ~ 3100 cal yr BP, and the initiation of these events coincides with an increase in El Niño dominance and southern shift in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Three MDEs, centered at 1750 cal yr BP (200 CE), 1100 cal yr BP (850 CE), and 850 cal yr BP (1100 CE) and found in other regional climate records, coincide with Maya sociopolitical changes. Residuals from regression of δ 13 C versus δ 18 O are interpreted as a proxy for maize cultivation and land clearing, with residual values gradually increasing at the start of Preclassic Period settlement (3950 cal yr BP/2000 BCE), peaking after 2250 cal yr BP (300 BCE) during major Maya development in the Late Preclassic and Classic Periods, and dropping to pre-Preclassic values after regional land abandonment (~ 850 cal yr BP/1100 CE). Regional Maya population growth and cultural expansion may have been aided by abnormally low precipitation variability, as stable isotope variability suggests the Late Preclassic through the Late Classic was the most stable precipitation regime of the past 4000 years. This additional research on MC01 complements other regional paleoenvironmental records that suggest that MDEs coincided with disruptions in Maya society from the Preclassic through the Postclassic Periods. Although it is clear that not all significant sociopolitical changes can be attributed to the MDEs, these events likely played an antagonistic role in social stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gains from implementing high-resolution versus less costly low-resolution models to describe coastal circulation are not always clear, often lacking statistical evaluation. Here we construct a hierarchy of ocean–atmosphere models operating at multiple scales within a 1 × 1° domain of the Belizean Barrier Reef (BBR). The various components of the atmosphere–ocean models are evaluated with in situ observations of surface drifters, wind and sea surface temperature. First, we compare the dispersion and velocity of 55 surface drifters released in the field in summer 2013 to the dispersion and velocity of simulated drifters under alternative model configurations. Increasing the resolution of the ocean model (from 1/12° to 1/100°, from 1 day to 1 h) and atmosphere model forcing (from 1/2° to 1/100°, from 6 h to 1 h), and incorporating tidal forcing incrementally reduces discrepancy between simulated and observed velocities and dispersion. Next, in trying to understand why the high-resolution models improve prediction, we find that resolving both the diurnal sea-breeze and semi-diurnal tides is key to improving the Lagrangian statistics and transport predictions along the BBR. Notably, the model with the highest ocean–atmosphere resolution and with tidal forcing generates a higher number of looping trajectories and sub-mesoscale coherent structures that are otherwise unresolved. Finally, simulations conducted with this model from June to August of 2013 show an intensification of the velocity fields throughout the summer and reveal a mesoscale anticyclonic circulation around Glovers Reef, and sub-mesoscale cyclonic eddies formed in the vicinity of Columbus Island. This study provides a general framework to assess the best surface transport prediction from alternative ocean–atmosphere models using metrics derived from high frequency drifters’ data and meteorological stations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Belize, the lack of forest degradation and socioeconomic data results in the inability of forest management organizations to make timely assessments and decisions for sustainable forest resource management. This study uses CLASlite algorithms and social surveys to identify drivers, measure, analyze and map deforestation, and forest degradation that occurred in Toledo's ecosystems and Protected Areas as a result of the increased anthropogenic activity reported in 2010–2012. The social surveys indicated that land and institutional policy, distance to markets and lack of alternative livelihoods are the main drivers of deforestation and forest degradation. Of importance are the strong significant differences that exist between communities that were less than 2 km from a protected area (CL2K) and communities that were more than 2 km from a protected area (CM2K) regarding property rights (Cramer's V = 0.562, p < 0.001), selective logging (Cramer's V = 0.499, p < 0.001) and soil quality (Cramer's V = 0.434, p < 0.001). The results of the deforestation and forest degradation analysis indicate that in 2009–2011 and 2011–2012 the annual rates of deforestation were 0.75% (2480 ha) and 1.17% (3834 ha) respectively and the annual rates of forest degradation in 2009–2011 and 2011–2012 were 0.09% (307 ha) and 0.33% (1110 ha) respectively. In 2009–2011 only 9.34% of forest loss occurred inside protected areas in comparison to 2011–2012 where 23.97% of forest loss occurred inside protected areas. In 2011–2012 out of the 1110 ha of degradation 30.38% occurred in Lowland broad-leaved wet forest and 19.39% occurred in Sub-montane broad-leaved wet forest. The maps and statistics generated in this study pinpoint in which ecosystem types and protected areas major forest change and forest disturbance occurred. By utilizing the data generated by this study, Belize's forest management organizations will be able to efficiently allocate resources to forested areas that are being threatened; thus, more effectively mitigate deforestation and forest degradation of important forest ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assess the impacts of a low-intensity selective timber harvest on a palm community in Belize, we mapped logging infrastructure (i.e., roads, log landings, skid trails, and stumps) and measured palm regeneration 1 year after a timber harvest carried out using reduced-impact logging (RIL) practices. We sampled palms across a gradient of increasing harvest impact severity from areas not directly affected by logging, in felling gaps, on secondary and primary skid trails, and on log landings. We used generalised linear mixed-effect models fitted in a Bayesian framework and applied a non-metric multi-dimensional scaling of the ecological distances between sites to evaluate differences in palm seedling regeneration density and species composition, respectively. The harvest of an average of 2.5 trees ha −1 caused 0.4% of the forest to be converted to log landings, 0.7% and 3.6% to roads and skid trails, and 2.3% to felling gaps, which left 93.0% of the 350 ha harvest block with no direct impacts of logging. The difference in abundance and species composition of palm regeneration in unlogged areas compared to felling gaps and skid trails was small, but log landings had markedly lower densities. These results highlight that the impacts of selective logging are minor at least where harvest intensities are low and RIL practices are employed. If further reductions in canopy opening and soil disturbance are desired, we recommend that logs be cable-yarded (i.e., winched) the final 20 m to skid trails instead of driving to the tree stumps. We estimate that implementation of this practice would reduce total skid trail coverage from 3.6% to 2.9% and overall forest disturbance from 7.0% to 6.3%. However, further reductions in disturbance might be inimical to the maintenance of palms and will certainly not favour regeneration of light-demanding commercial timber species (e.g., Swietenia macrophylla ). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study first examined teacher characteristics in the nation of Belize hypothesized to correlate with teacher self-efficacy, then after controlling for those variables examines increases in teacher self-efficacy following exposure to “teacher-led mathematics inquiry” using a randomized trial ( N = 332). Pre-service teacher preparation and Openness to Experience from the Big Five measure of personality contribute to teachers' self-efficacy within the context of Belize. Statistical and practical significance is discussed for teachers' self-efficacy when professional development was provided to enhance teacher content knowledge in combination with inquiry-based student centered instruction with manipulatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the consequences of rapid tourism expansion is abrupt pressure on local keystone resources such as water and energy. While novel wastewater technologies have been designed to close resource cycles and thereby diminish resource stress, little research has been undertaken to assess the coupled social, economic, and ecological components of system sustainability and resiliency in these areas. As a result, local decision makers often lack scientific information needed for making evidence-based and context-sensitive choices about new technologies. Involved stakeholders also lack resources to develop appropriate interventions to address human-environmental changes and unintended consequences. This article employs a grounded approach to sociocultural data analysis to critically examine how human perceptions and practices related to water, wastewater, and energy management in a rapidly growing tourist destination on the coast of Belize enable and constrain decision making with regard to technology adoption. Ethnographic research on the Placencia Peninsula in Belize focused on discerning perceptions of acceptability for the recovery of resources such as energy and nutrients from wastewater, local perceptions of health risks and benefits of such recovery, as well as how economic and environmental advantages of these processes intersect with local demands. Research reveals that local understandings are grounded in cultural practices, historical events and processes, contemporary political and economic issues, and variable awareness of environmental change. This study also reveals that the greatest barriers to the adoption and sustainability of new technologies include sharing technical and economic information broadly and providing opportunities for legitimate multilevel stakeholder participation in decision-making processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Committed action to deal with climate change requires reducing greenhouse gas emissions, i.e., mitigation, as well as dealing with its ensuing consequences, i.e., adaptation. To date, most policies and projects have promoted mitigation and adaptation separately, and they have very rarely considered integrating these two objectives. In this article, we develop a multi-dimensional framework to explore the extent to which climate mitigation forestry projects bring adaptation concerns into their design and implementation phases, using three Belizean projects as case-study material. We demonstrate that linking mitigation and adaptation has not been possible, because the mandate of forest carbon markets does not incorporate adaptation concerns. The projects’ contribution to forest ecosystems’ adaptation, for instance, by reducing human encroachments and by increasing ecosystem connectivity, has been limited. The projects’ contribution to improve local livelihoods has also been limited, and projects have even been contested by neighboring communities on the grounds of tenure conflicts and food security concerns. Furthermore, the projects’ mitigation potential is constrained by their poor additionality and lack of rigorous enforcement. We then conclude that the integration of mitigation and adaptation in Belize’s carbon forestry projects remains a laudable but elusive goal. Consequently, we request climate change donors to refrain from providing support to narrowly designed projects and we urge them instead to promote more holistic and territorial-based approaches targeting both mitigation and adaptation goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the introduction of the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) as an International Standard (ISO 19152), land administration organisations worldwide are considering the adoption of this standard into their current processes and cadastral information systems. Although LADM is a data standard, its adoption can have significant impacts on the process of managing cadastral information. These impacts include the influence on existing institutions and their operations, the description of cadastral information, the organisation of data in cadastral databases and the knowledge and capacity of human resources utilising and managing cadastral information. Therefore, the adoption of the LADM requires a holistic approach that considers the LADM not only as a data model for cadastral information, but also as a cornerstone in systems of land administration. This paper aims to introduce a LADM implementation roadmap including important factors that can be used by land administration organisations when adopting the LADM. The paper methodology presents this roadmap using two case studies, the first in Victoria, Australia and the second in Belize, Central America. Using these case studies, this paper analyses the potential impact of the LADM adoption in a jurisdiction with an established cadastral information system (CIS) and in a jurisdiction that is in the process of establishing a CIS. These factors include consideration of organisational motivation, institutional arrangements, information interpretation, information organisation, involvement in the LADM governance and capacity building. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] The Hondo River is the natural border between Mexico and Belize, and it is part of the distribution area of the Endangered Antillean manatee Trichechus manatus manatus. Currently, the Hondo River does not have any special protection. Employing qualitative research methods, we documented the social perception and local knowledge from riverside communities to assess conservation status and trends of manatees in the area. Fifty semi-structured interviews were carried out to river users in 16 Mexican communities, distributed in six segments along the riverbed. The claims of the inhabitants agree with boat-based surveys: most of the current and historical manatee sightings were reported in segments of the main watercourses, but also in small tributaries, which are usually shallow and rich in aquatic vegetation. Additionally, the local perception about manatee conservation status can be helpful to understand population trends and threats: 48 % of the interviewees claimed that nowadays the number of sighted manatees is less than that observed 10 years ago. The responders identified water pollution due to cane cultivation practices, motorized vessels traffic, and presence of fishing nets as potential threats to manatees. This study provides evidence of relevant local knowledge about the manatee ecology and its habitat, critical in the construction of binational conservation strategies for the species. Therefore, local resources users may play an increasingly significant role in manatee management and monitoring. Although manatees are poached for their meat in several areas of their distribution, the most common value attributed to manatees in Hondo River was non-use existence values. Local people recognize the challenges to observe this cryptic species in this river, but also identified manatees as potential flag species, suggesting that it may represent a valuable resource for ecotourism. We suggest that the non-extractive use of manatees has the potential for promoting species conservation and local economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A major challenge facing global fisheries is gaining support for sustainable management, which is vital for ensuring the longevity of coastal resources for livelihood and ecosystem benefits. Territorial User Rights for Fishing (TURFs) have emerged as a possible solution to overfishing by requiring fishers to report their catch, color-code their vessels, and fish in designated areas. Belize was the first country in the Caribbean to implement TURFs — in a program called "Managed Access" — with two pilot sites opening in 2011 and seven sites added in 2016. This study evaluates the knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of fishers in the Managed Access program, comparing responses between 2014 and 2019. We collaborated with the Belize Fisheries Department and two local conservation organizations to administer surveys to 362 fishers in 2014 and 123 fishers in 2019, from ten communities in southern Belize. Overall, fishers in both years understood the requirements for acquiring and renewing their licenses, but in 2019, significantly more fishers understood the logbook reporting requirement and the benefits of having tenure rights than those in 2014. 69% of respondents from 2019 support the program in the long run, but 62% report observing illegal fishing behavior. These data suggest a need to educate fishers about the benefits of accurate catch reporting, improve enforcement, and develop fisher empowerment programs, while also guiding management decisions on a national scale. Although the Managed Access program in Belize is fairly new, the lessons learned can be applied to other small-scale fisheries contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Successful adaptation to environmental change and variability is closely connected with social groups’ ability to act collectively, but many social-ecological challenges exceed local adaptive capacity which necessitate assistance from governmental institutions. Few studies have investigated how local collective action can be used to enrol external support for adaptation. This paper reduces this research gap by analysing a locally driven adaptation process in response to coastal erosion in Monkey River Village, Belize. Drawing on literature on adaptation and political ecology, we examine the different strategies the local residents have used over time to influence government authorities to support them in curbing the coastal erosion. Our findings show that the local mobilisation generated government support for a temporary sea defence and that collective strategies emerge as a response to threats to a place specific way of life. Our case illustrates that it was essential that the villagers could ally with journalists, researchers and local NGOs to make their claims for protection heard by the government. The paper contributes to adaptation research by arguing that local collective action, seen as contestation over rights to protection from environmental change, can be a means for places and communities not prioritised by formal policies to enrol external support for adaptation. Our study supports and adds to the perspective that attention to formal arrangements such as adaptation policy alone has limited explanatory power to understand collective responses to change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life on Earth was sharply disrupted 66 Ma ago as an asteroid hit the sea-floor in what is today Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Approximately 600 km 3 of sedimentary rock were vapourized, ejected into the atmosphere and subsequently deposited globally as an ejecta apron and fallout layer. Proximal ejecta deposits occur in Belize and southern Mexico where the so called Albion island spheroid bed is superimposed on the target rock (the Barton Creek Formation). We analysed the spheroid bed via Mössbauer spectroscopy, petrology, XRD, and palynology at several sites ~ 350–500 km distance from the crater centre. Our results show that the relative concentrations of Fe in nano-phase goethite (α-FeOOH) are very high in the spheroid bed samples from Albion Island (Belize) and from Ramonal South (Mexico), but are low to absent in the spheroid bed at Ramonal North, and in the Cretaceous target rock. Moreover, our study shows that goethite and haematite are the dominant Fe-oxide nano-phases and the XRD results show that the target rock consists of both calcite and dolomite. We suggest that the heterogeneous composition of the spheroid bed between the various sites reflects the different types of target rocks that were dispersed within the rapidly expanding vapour plume and the complex sorting processes involved in the formation of the ejecta blanket. The distribution of the vapourized target rock strongly influenced life on Earth at the close of the Mesozoic. However, the comparatively thin K–Pg boundary clay in high-latitude Gondwanan successions combined with evidence of catastrophic changes to the biota in this region implies that the long-term sunlight suppression in the Southern Hemisphere was mainly governed by the large quantities of hydrous aerosols nucleated around sulphuric acid droplets or nano-sized particles, such as the nano-phase Fe-oxides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a case study of the traditional treatment of a Q'eqchi' Maya man in southern Belize in 2011 who is suffering from AIDS-related sickness. The purpose is to detail the empirical nature of Q'eqchi' Maya medicine, distinguishing between manifest and latent empiricism, as evidenced in the healers evolving attempts to treat the patient in the absence of knowledge of his biomedical diagnosis. The paper argues for a more complete understanding of the empirical nature of much Indigenous healing, which parallels aspects of scientific medicine, and for better collaboration among traditional healers and biomedical practitioners in strongly Indigenous areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We trained a machine learning model to identify gunshot sounds in tropical forests. • We combined this model with a detector that runs onboard the acoustic recorder. • Our pipeline detected 80% of gunshots. • We used our pipeline to monitor hunting in a Belizean forest reserve. • We published our annotated dataset of field recordings and the trained classifier. Unsustainable hunting is one of the leading drivers of global biodiversity loss, yet very few direct measures exist due to the difficulty in monitoring this cryptic activity. Where guns are commonly used for hunting, such as in the tropical forests of the Americas and Africa, acoustic detection can potentially provide a solution to this monitoring challenge. The emergence of low cost autonomous recording units (ARUs) brings into reach the ability to monitor hunting pressure over wide spatial and temporal scales. However, ARUs produce immense amounts of data, and long term and large-scale monitoring is not possible without efficient automated sound classification techniques. We tested the effectiveness of a sequential two-stage detection pipeline for detecting gunshots from acoustic data collected in the tropical forests of Belize. The pipeline involved an on-board detection algorithm which was developed and tested in a prior study, followed by a spectrogram based convolutional neural network (CNN), which was developed in this manuscript. As gunshots are rare events, we focussed on developing a classification pipeline that maximises recall at the cost of increased false positives, with the aim of using the classifier to assist human annotation of files. We trained the CNN on annotated data collected across two study sites in Belize, comprising 597 gunshots and 28,195 background sounds. Predictions from the annotated validation dataset comprising 150 gunshots and 7044 background sounds collected from the same sites yielded a recall of 0.95 and precision of 0.85. The combined recall of the two-step pipeline was estimated at 0.80. We subsequently applied the CNN to an un-annotated dataset of over 160,000 files collected in a spatially distinct study site to test for generalisability and precision under a more realistic monitoring scenario. Our model was able to generalise to this dataset, and classified gunshots with 0.57 precision and estimated 80% recall, producing a substantially more manageable dataset for human verification. Using a classifier-guided listening approach such as ours can make wide scale monitoring of threats such as hunting a feasible option for conservation management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the North Atlantic and the Caribbean Sea have experienced unusual and unprecedented pelagic Sargassum blooms, which may adversely affect coastal ecosystems and productive ocean. Sargassum has the potential to scavenge trace elements and radionuclides from seawater, and when bioaccumulated and thus concentrated, can pose a potential threat to higher trophic organisms, including humans that consume impacted seafood. In this study, trace elements and naturally-occurring U/Th-series radionuclides were measured in Sargassum that were collected in the coastal waters of the Caribbean Sea (Antigua/Barbuda, Belize, and Barbados) to better define baseline concentrations and activities, and to assess the scavenging potential for these trace elements and radionuclides. The mean concentration of trace elements observed in Sargassum collected across these three Caribbean Sea are ranked accordingly to the following descending order: Sr > As>Fe > Mn > Zn > Ni > V > C > Cd > Se > Co > Cr > Pb > Ag > Hg. 210-Po and 210Pb activities in Sargassum were observed to be more elevated than previously reported values. • Assessment of select radionuclides and trace elements in Sargassum in Caribbean Sea. • Elevated concentration of Arsenic was observed in Sargassum. • 210Po and 210Pb activities in Sargassum were observed to be more elevated than previously reported values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]