Search

Ψ-3 is a monoclonal antibody that recognizes a 135,000 molecular weight structural component of maturing keratinocytes in psoriasis (the Ψ-3 antigen) but fails to bind to any constituent of keratinocytes in normal epidermis. This paper describes the occurrence of the Ψ-3 antigen in a variety of dermatopathologic conditions using immunoperoxidase (biotin-avidin-peroxidase) and immunofluorescence methods which show excellent concordance. In 35 of 36 specimens of psoriasis vulgaris, Ψ-3 antibody consistently immunolabels the cytoplasm of keratinocytes above the basal layer. At the edges of psoriatic plaques, Ψ-3 antibody staining extends for a variable distance into lesion-free epidermis. A similar pattern has been found in a certain number of other conditions described in the paper, including squamous cell carcinoma and condyloma acuminatum, but not Darier's disease basal cell carcinoma, nor lamellar ichthyosis. In all but one condition, the outermost or basal layer of cells is never stained. The only disease in which the lowermost cell layer is stained is a lichen planus-like lesion. The occurrence of Ψ-3 antigen cannot be correlated with any histologic feature of psoriasis such as acanthosis, loss of the granular layer, or hyperproliferation. The antigen appears to be a unique keratinocyte constituent which is expressed in certain pathologic conditions and which is not detected by any other histologic or immunophenotyping method. It is a potentially valuable addition to the panel of antibodies available for characterizing epithelial cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper re-examines the question of the social "fabric" of urban neighborhoods on the basis of residents' personal networks. Data were collected on the number, relative intimacy, and spatial distribution of social relationships among residents of two ethnically homogenous and two ethnically heterogenous neighborhoods in a medium-sized city in the midwestern United States. The analysis focused on spatial distributions and variables associated with differences in the average number or intimacy of neighborhood network ties. Herbert Gans had predicted that in heterogenous neighborhoods residential proximity would be a less important factor in social network formation than has previously been reported for socially homogeneous residential settings (especially Festinger et al. 1950). The results from this study indicated that the effects of proximity were more, rather than less, reflected in the spatial distribution of social relationships in the ethnically heterogenous neighborhoods. The face-block was identified as an important socio-spatial unit in all four neighborhoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines some of the assumptions and consequences of the use of distance as a measure of structural equivalence, as implemented in Burt's STRUCTURE program. We take the general perspective that for a measure to be useful it should not confound separate types of information which are theoretically and mathematically independent. The mathematical relation- ship between distance and the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient is presented. We show that use of distance as a measure of similarity without proper attention to appropriate standardization procedures confounds information on differences between means and differences between variances with information on the similarity of the patterns between pairs of individuals, e.g. correlation. A detailed examination of Burt and Bittner's analysis of Bernard, Killworth and Sailer's Ham radio operator group is presented, and it is demonstrated that use of distance as a measure of structural equivalence led to nonsensical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various papers presented during the European Society for Dermatological Research 15th Annual Meeting that took place from May 12 to 15, 1985 at Netherlands. "Carcinogenicity of Topical PUVA Treatment. A Lifelong Study in Mice" by scholars Matti Hannuksela, Frej Stenback and Arto Lahti discusses the carcinogenic properties of topical trimethyipsoralen and 8-methoxypsoralen plus ultraviolet A that were investigated in mice. "Photosensitizing Properties of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs Evaluated in Vivo and in Vitro" by U. Schwab, B. Przybilla, M. Dorn and J. Ring.

Network analysis is becoming popular in the study of interorganizational relations (IOR). It focuses attention directly on the relationships themselves, provides efficient descriptive summaries for entire systems of such relations, often includes intuitively appealing diagrams and is flexible and adaptable to a variety of situations. This flexibility, however, is due in part to the large number of different techniques which have been labeled "network" analysis. For the researcher who is attempting to use network analysis, this situation can result in a perception of vagueness and uncertainty rather than "flexibility" and produce the feeling that the techniques are not accessible. The purpose of this paper is to begin filling in the gap between IOR researcher needs and the specific techniques of network analysis. The field is reviewed, specific techniques are discussed and classified; a guide to selecting techniques is presented and directions for future IOR analysis are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the results of a series of experiments conducted to measure the effects of alternative procedures for determining the size of social networks. The three methods tested are recall, recognition, and numerical estimation. Respondents were selected from work, church, and social groups. The major findings were that recall estimates are substantially below those obtained by recognition methods and become worse for larger groups. On average, numerical estimates are reasonable approximations of network size estimates based on recognition, but there is substantial variability in the accuracy of individual reports. Surprisingly, there is no evidence that recall is better for reports on number of close friends than of friends or acquaintances. There are order effects on numerical estimates of network size and better estimates are obtained by first asking about close friends. Finally, there is some evidence that respondent characteristics such as age affect recall of network size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of recent studies have addressed the informal social structure surrounding urban decision making, showing its implications for collective political action. This paper extends these analyses by asking a prior question: what factors affect the structure of political networks? Specifically, the paper develops a model suggesting how one such factor, perceptions of political leadership and the expectations of political conflict they may engender, affect the structure of urban agenda-setting networks. Data collected from six cities show perceptions of leadership stability to be strongly correlated with four structural characteristics of these networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive maps of social behavior are of interest for theoretical as well as methodological reasons. The issue that has primarily been addressed, in comparing cognitive with behavioral social network data, is whether the participants' level of accuracy in reporting their social behavior is high enough to warrant the use of cognitive data as a substitute for behavioral data. The present paper focuses, instead, on what these imperfectly matched sets of data may tell us about low level processes of cultural codification, namely, those revealed by the transformation of behavioral interaction to cognitive report. Specifically, the analyses undertaken here indicate that the discrepancies between the two kinds of data are systematic, and that the cognitive data reflect an integration of the participants' direct relationships with each other into the set of relationships they observe as well as participate in. Participants tend to discount their high-frequency co-interactants for whom they, in turn, are relatively low-frequency co-interactants, in favor of those with whom they are reciprocally high. Thus, in reporting their direct relationships, they are in effect codifying them in terms of indirect relationships - namely, the relationships their co-interactants have with others in the set. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we present the absorption characteristics of human melanin in the visible range of wavelengths and specifically in the range 620-720 nm. The spectroscopy of melanin is studied by measuring remittance spectra of normal skin and vitiligo-involved skin of volunteers-patients. It is assumed that the spectral differences between adjacent areas of normally pigmented skin, and to some degree amelanotic skin, can only be due to the variations of the melanin filter. The ratio of the remittance spectrum of the vitiligo-involved skin with the spectrum of the normal skin in the range 620-720 nm can be fitted with a straight line for all the volunteers. A very strong correlation is obtained between the intercept and the slope for all the volunteers, which leads us to conclude that it is indeed melanin that we are measuring in all the volunteers and that it is the same substance spectroscopically for all the volunteers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human stratum corneum was extracted in Tris-HCl containing EDTA and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, separated on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, transblotted to nitrocellulose papers and reacted with rabbit antihuman epidermal transglutaminase (ETG) antibody. Protein-bound antibody was detected with a multistep peroxidase procedure. Proteins with a molecular weight of 50,000 (50kDa) and 72,000 daltons (72kDa) were stained when anti-ETG Was used and not when second antibody alone or sera from nonimmunized animals were used. When ETG was treated with trypsin or organic solvents, there was no alteration in the mobility of the 50kDa ETC band, but there was complete disappearance of the 72kDa band. Antibody that bound 72kDa protein, when eluted from the blot, reacted with both 50kDa and 72kDa proteins; Similarly, antibody that bound to the 50kDa protein, when eluted from the blot, reacted with both the 50kDa and 72kDa proteins. Partially purified 72kDa ETG activity was increased (3 to 16 times control levels) after heating at 56°C in the presence of calcium and dithiothreitol or by treatment with trypsin. These studies, in conjunction with the previous studies of ETG activation, are consistent with there being two forms of ETG. The different forms may play a role in regulating enzyme activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epidermal Langerhans cells are dendritic bone marrow-derived cells which synthesize and express Ia antigens. During the past decade, in vitro studies have demonstrated that they play a critical role in the induction of many types of T-cell responses. Specifically, Langerhans cells are effective antigen-presenting cells in allogeneic and antigen specific proliferative and cytotoxic T-cell responses. This paper reviews these functions and suggests areas of future investigations into the mechanisms involved in T-cell activation by Langerhans cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photosensitivity associated with lupus erythematosus (LE) is well established. The photobiologic basis for this abnormal response to ultraviolet radiation, however, has not been determined. This paper summarizes the criteria for elucidating possible photobiologic mechanisms and reviews the literature relevant to the mechanism of photosensitivity in LE. In patients with LE, photosensitivity to wavelengths shorter than 320 nm has been demonstrated; wavelengths longer than 320 nm have not been adequately evaluated. DNA is a possible chromophore for photosensitivity below 320 nm. UV irradiation of skin produces thymine photodimers in DNA. UV-irradiated DNA is more antigenic than native DNA and the antigenicity of UV-irradiated DNA has been proposed, but not proven, to be involved in the development of clinical lesions. UV irradiation of mice previously injected with anti-UV-DNA antibodies produces Ig deposition and complement fixation that appears to be similar to the changes seen in lupus lesions. Antibodies to UV-irradiated DNA occur in the serum of LE patients although a correlation between antibody titers and photosensitivity was not observed. Defective repair of UV-induced DNA damage does not appear to be a mechanism for the photosensitivity in LE. Other mechanisms must also be considered. The chromophore for photosensitivity induced by wavelengths longer than 320 nm has not been investigated in vivo. In vitro studies indicate that 360-400 nm radiation activates a photosensitizing compound in the lymphocytes and serum of LE patients and causes chromosomal aberrations and cell death. The mechanism appears to involve superoxide anion. Further research is required to establish the action spectrum for long wavelength photosensitivity in vivo and to elucidate the mechanisms for the photosensitivity at all wavelengths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, short-term effects of the composition of each meal on the synthesis of brain neurotransmitters have been studied. This paper reviews studies of the influence of dietary precursors such as tryptophan and other competing amino acids on serotonin synthesis and metabolism and emphasizes the important influence of insulin. The paper then focuses on assessment of newborn state behavior, since evidence in adult humans has suggested a relationship between sleep behavior and brain serotonin levels. Several studies are then summarized. First, a study of healthy full-term newborns examining the relationship between diet and sleep behavior showed that infants fed tryptophan entered active and quiet sleep sooner than infants fed valine and low carbohydrate. Other studies designed to examine the influence of hyperinsulinemia on this system are then described. An observational study of newborns of diabetic mothers during the first weeks of life showed that they were quieter babies, with difficulties in visual orientation and motor performance. Plasma amino acid ratios studied during a glucagon-stimulation test in an infant with hyperinsulinemia showed a marked increase in parallel with changes in insulin levels. The results suggest that infant sleep behavior can be a sensitive dependent variable in studies of behavioral effects of diet and suggests that variations in serotonin levels may play a modulating role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although both fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and trinitrophenyl (TNP) covalently couple primarily to the ∊-amino group of lysine residues of surface glycoprotein, FITC is structurally different from TNP. In this paper, we investigated the immune regulatory mechanisms in contact sensitivity (CS) to FITC by the administration of FITC and FITC-conjugated epidermal cells (FITCEC) via various routes. Mice injected with FITC via i.p. or i.v. route did not induce CS but induced hyporesponsiveness to the following sensitization with FITC painting. Mice injected with FITC via s.c. route induced neither CS nor hyporesponsiveness to the following FITC painting. Administration of FITC via i.v. route was demonstrated to induce hapten-specific suppressor T cells. Inoculation of FITC-EC via s.c. or J.p. route induced CS, whereas injection of FITC-EC via i.v. route did not induce CS but induced hyporesponsiveness to the following FITC painting. The results are compared with the previous data obtained by trinitrobenzene sulfonate and trinitrophenylconjugated epidermal cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It was shown in a previous paper that a connective tissue glycoprotein (CTGP) extracted from normal rabbit dermis was able to inhibit total protein and collagen syntheses by normal dermis fibroblast cultures. In the present study, the effects of CTGP on scleroderma fibroblasts were investigated. [14C]Proline incorporation into total proteins of the supernatant was not significantly different from that found in controls. By contrast, the amount of collagen, expressed as percentage of total secreted protein, was far higher in scleroderma cultures than in normal ones (14.4% ± 6.0% vs 4.6% ± 0.9%). Addition of CTGP to the medium induced a concentration-dependent inhibition of [14C]proline incorporation into proteins from both control and scleroderma cells. In control cultures, no significant decrease of the percentage of collagen was observed, but over 60 μg/ml, both cytotoxic effects and inhibition of protein synthesis occurred. In scleroderma cultures, the inhibition was twice as effective on collagen as on noncollagen protein synthesis. The inhibition of collagen secretion was not related either to changes in collagen hydroxylation or to the intracellular catabolism of newly synthesized procollagen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses a regression technique for determining maintenance nitrogen requirements in well-nourished primates (M fascicularis) on total parenteral nutrition. Animals were administered a continuous glucose infusion, and parenteral nitrogen intake was varied at constant time intervals in a random order (from 0 to 1 g nitrogen/kg/day). Interval nitrogen balance (intake minus urinary nitrogen output) was plotted against interval nitrogen intake. The x-intercept was defined as the maintenance nitrogen requirement. First, 24-h intervals were used at a nonprotein caloric intake of 85 kcal/kg/day („ 175% of primate resting energy expenditure) and the nutritional adequacy of the estimated requirement evaluated prospectively. Next, 8-h balance intervals were used and the maintenance nitrogen requirements predicted by this abbreviated technique were compared to those obtained using the longer method. Finally, the short-interval technique was repeated at two other levels of continuous glucose infusion (60 kcal/kg/day and 8 kcal/kg/day) and the effect on predicted nitrogen requirement examined. Maintenance parenteral nitrogen requirements for primates may be determined in 48 h using the abbreviated techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents summaries of reviews of books on library services. 'Library Services in Theory and Context,' by Michael K. Buckland; 'Library Services for the Aging,' by Genevieve M. Casey; 'Book Availability: Working Papers'; 'Librarians Serving Disabled Children and Young People,' by Henry C. Dequin.

Presents summaries of reviews of books on library employees. 'The Assertive Librarian,' by Janette S. Caputo; 'Allocation of Staff: Working Papers'; 'Organisational Charts: Working Papers'; 'Librarian's Affirmative Action Handbook,' edited by John H. Harvey and E. M. Dickinson.

Davis, Holland and Leinhardt have studied various microlevel and macrolevel models for group social structure in terms of certain two-valued relations on the group. These models are essentially defined in terms of permitted and `forbidden triad types at the microlevel which imply and are implied by specific ordered clique structures at the macrolevel. Upon testing these models against a large collection of empirical sociomatrices, it was found that these models fit the data moderately well; however, not perfectly, since one or two triads forbidden by the models occur in over half of the sociomatrices at frequencies greater than or equal to chance expectation. These discrepancies have encouraged further theorizing and elaboration of the models, but there has heretofore been no macromodel put forth which fits the total data exactly. In this paper we obtain such a model, which allows hierarchy within cliques. In addition, we give an exact data-fitting macromodel for each class of group sizes as well, except for a somewhat less precise description for the class of largest sizes. In each case the general macromodel exhibits all of the permitted triads and none of the forbidden ones. Similar data from a study of Hallinan not only support the macromodel for the total data when the forbidden triads are taken individually but also when they are taken as a set, thus showing that the data actually support this particular macromodel and not another. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Work by Rapoport and his colleagues in the 1950s and early 1960s developed the idea of biased/random nets as a theory of social network structure. It aims to explain variation in aggregate network patterns by appeal to differences in local properties affecting linkages between nodes and how these differences cascade to affect the overall structure of the total network. While the theory is set out mathematically and uses formal logic to analyze the general model, the complexity of the compound outcome makes exact theory impossible. Consequently, plausible approximations and approximation formulas are used to link up the local properties to global structure. Research reported in this paper attempts to check these approximations through simulation studies. Programs are developed which generate specific networks over a reasonably large (S = 100) population consistent with certain parametric specifciations which govern lcoal patterns of connection. Properties of these networks are then compared with those predicted from the approximation arguments in an effort to refine those arguments to the point at which they can be used with confidence in other theoretical inquiries, such as recent applications of biased net theory to Blau's influential ideas on the social structural determinants of relational patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In October 1975 a longitudinal study of over 2000 married women was initiated in Matlab, Bangladesh, to determine the association of fertility with nutritional status. This paper reports the results on nutritional status among nonpregnant women. The average weight and height of the study women was 40.4 kg and 147.9 cm. Weight fluctuated throughout the 2 1/2 yr study period corresponding to seasonal food shortages. Maternal weight (controlling for height) was consistently lower for older, higher parity women, illustrating the negative impact of increasing numbers of births on the mother's nutrient stores. Older women were also shorter than younger women, due to greater deficits in growth during childhood. Older, higher parity women had slightly lower hematocrits than younger women with an overall mean of 35%. Education level was associated positively with height, weight, and hematocrit. Muslims were taller and heavier than Hindus, reflecting their generally higher socioeconomic status. The seasonal pattern of nutritional status is discussed in relation to the seasonally of food availability, activity patterns, and incidence of infectious disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the various papers presented at the Workshop on Nutrition and Hypertension, which was held on March 12-14, 1984. Topics discussed include laboratory methods in nutrition research, nutritional factors involved in the pathogenesis of hypertension, and the role of sodium in hypertension. Researchers David M. Hegsted, John R. Gill, and Richard J. Havlik participated in the workshop.

New product development requires the integration of sensory attributes including product taste, texture, and appearance with consumer attitudes and health biases. Both sensory and attitudinal variables determine food preferences, product purchase and food consumption. This review paper describes novel mathematical procedures that allow for study of real foods rather than model systems. Application of the Response Surface Method (RSM) to sensory evaluation of salted snacks is described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the past 10 yr. renewed interest has been expressed in the mechanisms controlling the intake of specific dietary components. In particular, this interest has focused on research examining the role of the central nervous system in regulating intake of the three macronutrients protein, fat, and carbohydrate. Several hypotheses relating specific neurotransmitter systems to nutrient selection have developed from this research. However, conflicting data make the acceptance of any one hypothesis about diet selection untenable. As an attempt to reconcile some of the conflicting data, the present paper describes a variety of factors which can influence patterns of nutrient choice. The effects of diet composition, the experimental environment, the animals' background, and nutritional history on diet selection are examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper is concerned with the locus of provenance of satiety signals, what these are generated by, and pathways by which they reach the brain. Satiety signals are generated by the stomach and are of two kinds: distention at high volume and nutrient content. The former, but not the latter, are relayed to the brain via the vagus. Receptors that signal nutrient respond to digestive breakdown product of such nutrient. Further experiments are summarized to show that the gastric nutrient signals are calibrated through learning by association with various flavors. Previous to such learning, when food is novel, gastric controls do not operate, but regulation occurs through oropharyngeal metering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reports on the addition of a research unit to the freshman English Composition course at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, that addressed the concern of writing better papers. Prerequisite skills; Background study; Development of the program.

This article presents a report on General Assembly of Members of the 15th annual meeting of the European Society for Dermatological Research, which was held on the May 13. A maximum of 61 attended the meeting. Chairman P. Fritsch put to the meeting four proposals for discussions that are, central themes, poster discussion, special advisors and the number of papers accepted. there were three central themes which were discussed in the meeting. These three central themes were discussed were inflammatory mediators, monoclonal antibodies and receptors.

This article focuses on the annual interim meeting of the board of directors which commenced on the November 30, 1984 at 9 A.M. Editor Howard Baden reported that the number of manuscripts received by the journal during the first eleven months of the ear has increased from 330 in 1983 to 430 in 1984. The quality of submitted articles and the distribution of countries from which the papers are sent are essentially stable. David Norris, scientific program committee chairman, discussed various plans for the 1985 joint meeting. Finally, the Board agreed to propose to the Members in May, 1985, a $10 per year increase in 1986 dues if a $10 per year increase in member subscription costs occurs.

In a previous paper we showed that the microvessels in a psoriatic plaque as studied by electron microscopy returned to normal before the labeling index of the basal cells did during successful therapy with PUVA or the Goeckerman treatment. In this paper we studied the same parameters in 4 additional psoriatic patients: 2 received oral methotrexate and 2 were treated with a topical steroid under plastic wrap occlusion. The labeling index of the basal cells returned to normal in 3 and near normal in 1. The histologic features of the psoriatic epidermis became normal except for mild to moderate acanthosis, but the capillary loops in the dermal papillae retained their venous capillary ultrastructure and showed no signs of reversion to a normal arterial capillary configuration. The lack of response of the dermal capillaries to the topical steroid and oral methotrexate during the initial clinical improvement raises the possibility that the clinical relapses in psoriasis which may promptly follow discontinuation of topical steroid therapy and oral methotrexate may be related to an inability of these drugs to restore the microvasculature to normal in such situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents several books on online catalogs. 'Redesign of Catalogs and Indexes for Improved Online Subject Access Selected Papers of Pauline A. Cochrane,' by Pauline Atherton Cochrane; 'Easy Access to DIALOG, ORBIT, and BRS,' by Patricia J. Klingensmith and E.E. Duncan; 'Public Access to Online Catalogs,' 2nd ed., by Joseph R. Matthews.

Presents several books about publishing. 'The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe,' by Elizabeth L. Eisenstein; 'A History of Writing,' by Albertine Gaur; 'Victorian Publishers' Book-Bindings in Paper,' by Ruari McLean.

How does academic influence operate? The usual empirical approach to this question has been through the counting of citations. This paper argues that patterns and modes of influence are of equal or greater interest, and may modify the meaning of simple citation counts. The argument is developed through analysis of an example, that of Samuel Stouffer and Paul Lazarsfeld and their influence on the emergence of modern survey research, which is of some substantive interest in its own right. This paper starts with a narrow empirical question: has Stouffer or Lazarsfeld had more influence on survey research? This paper also tries to determine whether the influence of both men can be distinguished. This paper also discussed the social factors and work styles in the production of citations.

The article reports on electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Much has been written during the last decade on the medicalization of deviance and social control. Behaviors which were once either not problematic, or seen as individual vices, have come to be seen as manifestations of medical disorders over the last century. Mental illness has long been seen as an appropriate arena for medical intervention. This paper reports on the increase in the use of ECT in California over the past six years, and suggests some tentative sociological explanations for the increase. There is considerable clinical controversy concerning the use of ECT in the treatment of psychiatric disorders, with some physicians opposed to its use under any circumstances. Utilization rates vary by state, ranging from under 10 percent of psychiatrists to over 20 percent using ECT in their practices. Since almost all ECT is administered on an inpatient basis, the increase in ECT can usefully be measured against inpatient population changes. The inpatient population of California state and county mental hospitals has shown a steady and linear decline between 1972 and 1980, from 11,042 to 6,508. Sociological explanations for the rising contemporary utilization of ECT, then, may properly begin, but not end, with the issue of privatization of psychiatric care. The rise in popularity of biomedical models of mental disorder, the patterns and sources of reimbursement, and the relationship of these reimbursement sources to the socio-demographic characteristics of patients are all significant features in the development of an explanatory theory.

The article discusses the concept of crime control. This paper adds to that general debate by conceptualizing the growing reliance on probability, opportunity reduction, and loss prevention as part of a trend toward an insurance or actuarial model of social control. These techniques offer an alternative to, not necessarily a replacement for, existing control strategies. Insurance is a technique for sharing and consequently reducing and managing individual risks. Risk refers to the uncertainty of loss or the probability that losses will occur. The concept of risk should not be confused with that of peril. In practice, however, the certainty of losses may be influenced by social and environmental factors. Hazards are those conditions which contribute to the probability of loss. They may include things as diverse as oily rags stored in a basement, liability laws, or broken door locks. Many of the techniques currently being introduced, and in some cases reintroduced, as forms of social control can be conceptualized according to insurance or risk management metaphors. The objectives of insurance based systems of control, i.e., to anticipate and minimize crime loss probabilities, exemplify the behaviorist approach. Insurance-like techniques are pre-emptive, but only to a degree. The losses due to criminal victimization are contained, not eliminated.

This paper has attempted to chart and analyze the process whereby police legitimacy came to be constructed and de-constructed in Great Britain. The achievement of widespread consent to the police institution in Britain by the 1950s was partly the product of particular police organizational policies. But these were only successful because of the background context in which the working class came to be incorporated into the key political and economic institutions of the social order. Particular police policy choices were however, crucial in this virtuous circle. These policies were not absolutely determined by the political or social character of Britain, but were more or less conscious choices between perceived options. Basic to the "new" police idea was the establishment of a full-time force of professional police officers, organized into a bureaucratic hierarchy. This was itself part of a broader process of rationalization of social control in the same period. The bureaucratic organization of law-enforcement replaced a motley assortment of part-timers, entrepreneurial thief-takers and amateur volunteers. Adherence to the "rule of law" was a major aspect of the internal discipline laid down by the first Commissioners, and subject to intense judicial scrutiny in the Metropolitan Police's formative years.

Although features of individual careers are influenced by the personnel administrative rules of work organizations, rules themselves rarely have been examined. Rather, one generally attempts to infer the nature of the attainment process by investigating results of the process as seen in the salary and status trajectories of a population sample and by relating this to individual background characteristics. In this paper, in contrast, organizational rules are directly examined. Administrative specifications with respect to salary advancement and promotion in a variety of work settings are examined, in particular, in police departments, public school systems, the construction industry and several private-sector organizations. Sources of organizational rules are union contracts and company data about their human resource systems. Based on this material, the article introduces concepts of simple structure, unitary structure and amalgam structure to summarize the alternate formulations of career evolution that appear in the administrative rules.

This paper explores the extent to which labor market and sex discrimination mechanisms interact in explaining the male-female wage gap. Three occupational labor markets are operationalized in order to examine if women's wage attainment processes differ by labor market and if the wage processes of sexes differ within labor market segments. Regression analyses are performed on a sample of salaried employees from the 1977 Quality of Employment Survey. Results indicate that women's reward structure varies somewhat by labor market but not as much as labor market theorists contend. Independent primary and especially subordinate primary women's reward structures are not consistent with labor market conceptualizations particularly with respect to experience and class/authority measures. However, women's labor market placement is not a crucial factor in explaining their lower earnings relative to men because substantial male-female wages gaps persist within three labor markets. Findings from a regression standardization procedure suggest that the sex gap in pay in the subordinate primary segment can be attributed to differences in how resources are translated into earnings.

Past research on the marital mobility of women compared their occupational mobility through marriage with men's own occupational mobility. This paper focuses on income mobility through work and marriage. It compares the effect of social background characteristics on the economic attainments of young men and women in labor and marriage markets, respectively. However, the parental economic and social resources that are most important for matching men with high-income jobs are not always the same as those enhancing women's success in marrying high-income husbands. Parental economic resources such as farm and business ownership increase men's own income mobility, but not the marital mobility of their sisters. Viewing parental community quality as a proxy for the type of potential husbands to which a young women is connected, this finding suggests that the process of marital mobility is embedded in the structure of social networks more than the process of work mobility.

Recent reformulations of the traditional Marxist perspective prompt questions concerning the position of contradictory class locations in the earnings hierarchy. In this paper earnings inequality is analyzed within one contradictory category, supervisors, as a function of two dimensions of work authority, namely, span of responsibility and span of control. It is also argued that ascriptive status differences in socioeconomic processes and theoretical arguments positing structural sources of race-sex inequality dictate separate analyses for four race-sex groups. Findings produced from multivariate analyses of survey data suggest that the span of control outweighs span of responsibility in explaining earnings among supervisors, there are strong ascriptive status differences favoring white mates in the impact of these key variables and testing for statistical interaction revealed very few sets of unique circumstances under which women benefit from authority dimensions. Implications for conceptualizations of class relations, segmentation perspectives and theory relevant to ascription are discussed.

This paper explores the extent of modern poverty--deprivation--in contemporary Hungary. Traditional poverty has been replaced by modern poverty or deprivation in every respect in Hungary, but today deprivation is the overwhelming phenomenon. Deprivation characterizes nearly 15 percent of the Hungarian population. Another 20 percent of the population lives on the edge of deprivation. The elderly and those who live in villages are disproportionately likely to be deprived. Women are also more likely to be deprived than men, because they tend to live longer and many of them receive old age benefits based only on their husband's employment history and because women are in a disadvantageous position in the labor market throughout their lives. Large families are also disproportionately more likely to be deprived than small ones, but here the causal order reversed the deprived are probably more likely to have larger families because they hold traditional beliefs that children can guarantee security in old age and that birth control is a crime.

This paper documents the impact of welfare states that provide alternative sources of income on stratification outcomes in Great Britain, West Germany and Sweden for the post-World War II period. The paper gives a detailed individual-level analysis of alterations of market based income. The magnitude of policy effects along with the policy mix available to individual households and the extent of reliance on the market as a result of that policy mix have been compared. This paper directly challenges the logic of industrialization approach as an explanation of welfare policy development. The paper analyses a set of welfare policies that intervene in the market-determined consumption of privately produced income goods and services in Great Britain, West Germany and Sweden. Due to various developments in the post-World War period the state no longer simply provided legal, physical and political supports to market actors but began to intervene directly in altering market based distributional outcomes. The paper stresses on shifting sociological study of the welfare state away from analyses of expenditure levels or policy events.

This article analyzes the extent to which class positions and identifications structure political consciousness and action. This article has two primary goals. First, it attempts to examine connections among class position, class self-identification and class-related political organization in eight Western capitalist nations. Second, it examines whether these variables are associated with one arguably central feature of political culture evaluations of key political groups like trade unions, left political parties, civil servants, small businessmen and big business. This paper follows Wright in conceptualizing "class" as a set of control or authority positions in a system of economic production. Analysis reveals basic similarities in the class structure of the eight countries, substantial differences in patterns of class identification and significant effects on evaluations of key political groups, showing both national similarities and variations, of both class position and class self-identification.