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Abstract In many regions worldwide, the electrification of rural areas is expected to be partly achieved through micro power grids. Compliance with the COP21 conference requires that such systems mainly build on renewable energy sources. To deliver a high power and quality service may be difficult to be achieved, especially when micro-grids are based on variable renewable sources. We here explore the multiscale temporal variability of the local solar resource in Africa and its implication for the development of 100% solar systems. Using high resolution satellite data of global horizontal irradiance (GHI) for a 21-year period (1995–2015), we characterize the seasonality and temporal variability of the local resource. We focus on its low percentile values which give a first guess on the size of the solar panels surface required for the micro-grid to achieve a given quality service. We assess the characteristics and especially persistence of the low resource situations, for which the local demand would not be satisfied. We finally assess how the ability of electricity consumers for some day-to-day flexibility (e.g. via the postponement of part of one day as demand to the next), would help to achieve the design level of service quality with a smaller microgrid system. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • 1.1 billion people lack access to electricity in the world, 80% live in rural areas. • 100% solar microgrids (MG) are expected to provide electricity access in remote African areas. • The power service quality will depend on the seasonal and daily variability of solar radiation. • Using low percentile GHI values to design MG could help achieving a given power service quality. • Design should account for some clustering of low resource days in specific seasons or time sequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Battery state of charge profiles are affected by the suppressed demand effect. • In small rural systems the suppressed demand effect impacts directly to reliability. • Considering the suppressed effect demand lead to more sustainable systems design. Abstract Rural electrification programs usually do not consider the impact that the increment of demand has on the reliability of off-grid photovoltaic (PV)/battery systems. Based on meteorological data and electricity consumption profiles from the highlands of Bolivian Altiplano , this paper presents a modelling and simulation framework for analysing the performance and reliability of such systems. Reliability, as loss of power supply probability (LPSP), and cost were calculated using simulated PV power output and battery state of charge profiles. The effect of increasing the suppressed demand (SD) by 20% and 50% was studied to determine how reliable and resilient the system designs are. Simulations were performed for three rural application scenarios: a household, a school, and a health centre. Results for the household and school scenarios indicate that, to overcome the SD effect, it is more cost-effective to increase the PV power rather than to increase the battery capacity. However, with an increased PV-size, the battery ageing rate would be higher since the cycles are performed at high state of charge (SOC). For the health centre application, on the other hand, an increase in battery capacity prevents the risk of electricity blackouts while increasing the energy reliability of the system. These results provide important insights for the application design of off-grid PV-battery systems in rural electrification projects, enabling a more efficient and reliable source of electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Decentralised Solar Home Systems (SHSs) are established as an effective strategy to connect the 'last mile' without electricity access and leapfrog communities to clean energy solutions. According to the World Bank, the Pay-As-You-Go (PAYG) model has emerged as one of the effective commercially viable solutions to provide decentralised energy access to rural and remote communities in developing nations. The paying ability of households is a critical challenge for energy enterprises, and PAYG, with its easy payment schemes makes solar units affordable and allows households to gradually own these systems. The model also offers user training, ongoing maintenance, and service blocking functionality that minimises investment risk. The PAYG model has demonstrated huge success in Sub-Saharan Africa where Kenya pioneered the model as a cost competitive modern alternative for kerosene. One in five people in India lack access to electricity, and grid-connected rural communities often face frequent blackouts. With the advancement in distributed solar technologies and growing penetration of the mobile telecommunications network in India, PAYG could advance into a successful model to electrify communities living off the grid. Our analysis involves a two-dimensional approach where a systematic review of PAYG literature including case studies from Kenya and India was performed, followed by three expert interviews to further augment learnings and opportunities to deploy PAYG SHSs in India. This analysis finds that India's socio-political context seems suited for increased PAYG penetration, including utilising the opportunity provided by the country's Unified Payments Interface. This paper offers insights for practitioners and policymakers to consider the PAYG model to deploy clean electricity to households and rural micro-enterprises. Highlights • Lessons for successful implementation of PAYG energy model in India • Superior products and maintenance mechanisms are integrated into PAYG. • PAYG financing appropriate for energy budgets of poor households. • India's Unified Payments Interface presents a unique opportunity for PAYG model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • A bi-level framework for design of rural microgrids considering annual load growth. • Uses decision analysis method in synergy with optimization tool. • A new level is introduced in the hierarchal structure of decision making model. • Demonstrates real-time case study of an unelectrified village in the hilly region. Abstract The complexity in the design of sustainable microgrids based on renewable energy sources have increased recently due to the involvement of multiple performance indices, scenarios, and stakeholders. At disintegrated level such as rural villages in developing nations, the issue has become more severe concerning the involvement of social and cultural characteristics making the problem multidimensional with multiple objectives. Thus, a proper method which can simultaneously consider the various criteria and differing views of the multiple actors involved in varying scenarios is required. In this paper, a bi-level framework based on the integration of decision making and optimization tool for the design of a rural microgrid with a perspective of sustainable development considering the annual load growth is presented. The first design level utilizes the decision analysis models to determine the best possible energy alternatives for the microgrid design considering the number of key performance indices formulating different scenarios and acts as input to the second level of the framework. A multi-objective computational optimization tool is utilized in the second level to carry out the feasibility analysis of best energy alternative in order to obtain an optimal size with a lower cost accounting yearly load growth. The proposed framework is then implemented to design a sustainable microgrid for an unelectrified village in the hilly region. Most importantly the microgrid design based on the proposed methodology for the target site utilizes the available local resources such as solar, hydro with the dam, hydrokinetics based on river water streams, etc. as the primary energy generating sources with a diesel generator as back up along with battery and pump-hydro storage as storage systems. A total of 23 alternatives depending upon the different combination of energy sources and storage is constituted in a centralized off-grid system. Moreover, four primary performance criteria (social, technical, economic and environment) with 20 sub-criteria in 29 different scenarios are considered for evaluating the microgrid which is highly unlikely to be observed in literature so far. A discursive result illustrating the various profiles (generation and storage system) of the microgrid based on daily, monthly and yearly basis accounting the load growth is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Microgrids can be a valid alternative to grid extension for rural electrification. • Advance dispatch strategies and proper system design can significantly reduce costs. • We propose a new catalog-based microgrid design optimization algorithm. • Yearly performance is assessed via a realistic Rolling Horizon simulation. • The algorithm is applied to optimal regional electrification planning. Abstract Off-grid microgrids constitute an increasingly viable alternative to grid extension for rural electrification. Thanks to significant reductions in hardware cost, energy cost for off-grid users in areas sparsely covered by the national grid has become competitive with grid-connection once infrastructural costs are accounted for. Microgrids offer advantages also from an environmental and social point of view, featuring generation systems with high renewable penetration and facilitating the involvement of local communities in development projects. To further enhance microgrids economic competitiveness, it is necessary to devise innovative control strategies and design algorithms, that can ensure an optimal operating performance at the lowest overall cost. In this paper we present a new predictive design and dispatch optimization algorithm based on Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP). The new method is compared to a previously developed heuristic methodology, applying both to the design and yearly performance estimation of local microgrids, characterized on the basis of real data relative to a sub-Saharan African region. The potential advantages of including the proposed microgrid design method in a regional electrification planning model are illustrated in a realistic case example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar home systems are recognized as a promising technology to mitigate energy poverty, promote renewable energy, and achieve Goal 7 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. This study examines the determinants of solar home system adoption, with a focus on similarities and differences between households and micro-enterprises. Our original data, collected in rural off-grid villages in southern Bangladesh, reveal that households prefer relatively higher generation capacities for multiple purposes, while micro-enterprises prefer lower ones mainly for nighttime lighting. We confirm positive effects of higher economic status and negative effects of the existence of a smoker on solar home system adoption, which is similar for both households and micro-enterprises. On the other hand, households and micro-enterprises are different in two respects: (1) micro-enterprises are more likely to respond to unit prices of other alternative energy sources than households are and (2) households are more sensitive to prospects of grid expansion in the near future than micro-enterprises are. These findings imply that to progress the government’s goal of electrification for all by 2021, there are more effective ways for further promotion of solar home systems by distinguishing between the approaches to marketing for households and micro-enterprises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, around 1.2 billion people remain without access to electricity in rural areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America. In order to achieve universal access, a wide range of institutions must be involved in long-term rural electrification programs within a regional and national scope. In this context, the main objective of this research is to propose an evaluation methodology which aims to promote continual improvement of the programs underway, by undertaking the appropriate modifications in terms of their design and implementation. In this regard, a formative approach is sought, as the programs underway require from elements for continual improvement. In addition, a management perspective is also sought, as the results focus on program leaders for the implementation of suitable modifications, as and when needed. The proposed evaluation methodology considers 4 sustainability dimensions: environmental, technical, socioeconomic and institutional, in turn composed of 15 criteria that allow the design and implementation of the program to be analyzed in detail. The criteria are assessed by means of indicators dealing with the specific conditions of each program. As a case study, the Venezuelan program "Sowing Light" is taken as an empirical application of the proposed methodology. Launched in 2005, this program has been developed in three phases, reaching 900 rural communities to date, and is expected to benefit 2020 more in the near future. Hence, the proposed evaluation methodology aims to provide useful results to compare RET-based electrification programs with conventional grid extension. Similarly, the methodology promotes continual improvement in favor of universal electricity access in rural communities in this country, as well as lessons learned that can be useful for the development of similar initiatives in other developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a novel concept of small isolated electric power generation from pumped-hydro energy storage (PHES) using wind as primary energy is proposed for rural and remote areas where the wells are available. A suitable well is utilized as the lower reservoir of the PHES system, while the upper reservoir needed for the water storage is made on the ground. In this scheme, the wind turbine, unlike other PHES schemes is not used for rotating the electric generator at all, but to rotate the hydraulic pump, which is used to suck the water from the well and to store it in the upper reservoir. The water head created in this way is utilized to run a pico-hydro turbine coupled with a generator for generating electric power. The mathematical modelling of the system has also been developed in the paper. For the validation of the model, the simulation is carried out using the actual wind speed data. The attractive features of the scheme are its low cost, simplicity, reliability and continuity in power supply at constant voltage irrespective of wind speed variations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pakistan is an agricultural country and most of its population resides in rural areas. These communities have small power demands which can easily be met through proper utilization of renewable energy technologies such as solar photovoltaic (PV). The focus of this research work is to encourage people and government to develop zero energy communities which will greatly help to achieve sustainable energy infrastructure in the country. In this paper, feasibility of a grid-connected PV power system without battery backup is conducted for the climatic conditions of a rural community located in Toba Tek Singh, Pakistan. RETScreen clean energy simulation tool is used to optimize and carry out feasibility analysis of the proposed PV system. The analysis is carried out based on project finances, fuel saving potential, energy production, capacity factor, and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The financial viability of the project is studied by comparing it with the grid electricity. The results indicate that the proposed PV power plant can provide energy in remote areas at relatively better rates as compared to grid electricity. Furthermore, this initiative will help to reduce the emissions of harmful greenhouse gases and to achieve a sustainable development in the country. A sensitivity analysis is also performed to demonstrate and elaborate the effects of government incentives on different decision variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the potential application of hybridized energy system (i.e., PV/Wind/Diesel) with battery storage in the northern region of Bangladesh. A techno-economic feasibility of different system configurations is evaluated and an optimized system is selected using HOMER (Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable) software. The hybrid system is optimized to meet a remote stand-alone village community’s load demand of 242.56 kWh/day with a 51.52 kW peak load demand. The result of this study indicates that the optimized hybrid system consists of 73 kW PV arrays, a 57 kW Diesel generator, a 387 kWh nominal capacity battery bank, and 28 kW inverters have the minimum Cost of Energy (COE) of 0.37$/kWh and the Net Present Cost (NPC) of $357,284. The outcome also indicates that the optimized system reduces CO 2 emission by around 62% in comparison with the kerosene used in a current situation and 67% with the grid connected system. Furthermore, the Life Cycle Emissions-LCE (kg CO 2 -eq/yr) production is considerably lower in PV/Batt/ICE system than the other system configurations. However, this system has a lower Duty Factor (DF) compared to Wind/Batt/Diesel and Batt/Diesel based system. Although this system is not comparable with the grid tariff, the proposed method is economically feasible than solar micro utility system, Wind/Batt/Diesel system, and Diesel generator only system. Additionally, the article discusses the social and economic benefits of implementing the hybridized system along with their barriers and challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We proposed SolneX which for electrifying rural areas to cover basic needs. • We assessed the system by using the product design knowledge. • We developed a business model to match technical advantages and economic value. Abstract An estimated 16% of the world’s population do not have access to electricity, and most of them live in rural areas. A reliable energy access for rural communities will help them break out of the cycle of poverty and will empower significant socio-economic benefits. Specifically, the energy sector situation in Palestine suffers from scarcity of traditional energy sources, financial crisis and unstable political conditions. Meanwhile, Palestine has high solar energy potential and an annual average solar radiation of about 5.4 kWh/m2 day. This article provides a solution by designing a solar home system represented by a small, lightweight, decentralized and autonomous generation with a combination of four different electric appliances to cover several basic needs. The design is assessed by using the product design knowledge as this publication presents an overview of the approach used in structuring and using product design tools leading to shape formulation of system which is called SolenX. The paper also examines a business model that creates a heuristic logic to connect technical potential with the realization of economic value while addressing the total estimated manufacturing cost of $416 per unit. SolenX is powered by a 60 W foldable solar panel with a battery capacity of 0.480 kWh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lack of access to electricity in developing countries necessitates spatial electricity planning for guiding sustainable electrification projects that evaluate the costs of centralized systems vis-a-vis decentralized systems. Heuristic approaches have been widely used in such electrification problems to find feasible, cost effective solutions; however, most of the time global optimality of these solutions is not guaranteed. Our paper through its modeling approach provides a new methodology to find the least cost solution to this electrification problem. We model the spatial network planning problem as Prize Collecting Steiner Tree problem, which would be a base for a decision support tool for rural electrification. This new method is systematically assessed using both randomly generated data and real data from rural regions across Sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative results for the proposed approach and a widely used heuristic method are presented based on computational experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Additional renewable energy and storage reduce the cost or rural electrification compared to pure grid extension. • The reliability of the central power grid and of the microgrid are introduced as important parameters. • Results on 20 test cases show that these parameters influence the choice of rural electrification strategy. • Local, renewable energy generation reduces drastically the grid losses: from 23.2% to 8.7% in the best scenario. Abstract Globally, 1.2 billion people have yet to be granted access to electricity. Another 2.4 billion receive an intermittent electrical supply due to undersized and unreliable rural power grids. However, existing rural electrification programs focus mostly on extending the central power grid, thus providing an intermittent supply and increasing the losses on the power grid. In the literature, extension of the central grid is unilaterally compared with a stand-alone microgrid solution. In the model for rural electrification presented in this paper, the extension of the central grid is supplemented with local renewable energy generation and storage. The “reliability of the central power grid”, the “expected reliability of electrical supply in the village”, and the “losses” are also introduced as important design parameters. The usefulness and relevance of the proposed model was illustrated through 20 test cases. For Kanjikuzhi, an Indian village, additional renewable energy can reduce the average cost of electricity by 26%, diminish power interruptions by 40% and decrease grid losses by 62.5%, compared to a simple extension of the central power grid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A Brayton-Stirling cycle based biomass-fueled cogeneration system is developed. • An externally fired microturbine which is used as the topping cycle. • Thermodynamic and exergetic performances of three layouts have been analyzed. • The system overall efficiency can be improved from 0.56 to 0.85 after optimization. • The optimal layout can increase the evaluated exergy efficiency from 0.20 to 0.29. Access to electricity in many remote rural areas of the world is wanting and often relies on decentralized concepts that are environmentally detrimental, costly, and unreliable. The purpose of this study was to examine an approach to meet this need that is based on an external biomass-fueled cogeneration system incorporating combined cycles for maximizing efficiency while ensuring robust operation. Specifically, the first and second laws of thermodynamics were analyzed in a system composed of a Brayton-Stirling cycle and a water boiler to compare efficiency, heat and electricity generation under three different power layouts of cogeneration for applications in the range of 100–200 kW electrical power output. The results show that overall efficiency is maximized at 85% with a hybrid power layout for cases where the turbine inlet temperature is 1273 K, the pressure ratio is 0.4, the regenerator effectiveness is 0.95, and the dead volume of the Stirling engine is 0.3. These findings provide a basis for implementing cogeneration systems to improve the reliability and robustness of power systems for rural electrification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building and power generation decarbonization present new challenges in electric grid reliability as a result of renewable energy source intermittency and increase in grid load caused by end-use electrification. To restore reliability, grid-interactive efficient buildings can provide grid flexibility services through demand response. Reinforcement learning is well-suited for energy management in grid-interactive efficient buildings as it is able to adapt to unique building characteristics compared to rule-based control and model predictive control. Yet, factors hindering the adoption of reinforcement learning in real-world applications include its sample inefficiency during training, control security and generalizability. Here we address these challenges by proposing the MERLIN framework for the training, evaluation, deployment and transfer of control policies for distributed energy resources in grid-interactive communities for different levels of data availability. We utilize a real-world community smart meter dataset to show that while independently trained battery control policies can learn unique occupant behavior and provide up to 60% performance improvement at the district level, transfer learning provides comparable building and district level performance while reducing training costs. [Display omitted] • Tackles reinforcement learning challenges in energy management. • Up to 60% performance boost with independent battery control policies. • Transfer learning cuts training costs and maintains performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy transition rests on several pillars including the electrification of heating, transportation, and industry to enable the better exploitation of renewable energy sources. This changes the geography of the energy system, where power changes from being centrally produced to being more geographically distributed. The electrification will add new, large point demands to the electricity system. The distributed generation, point demands and a higher level of electricity transit all suggest grid impacts beyond design levels. Concurrently, the transition relies on coordinated actions at local and national levels with potential mismatch issues. This article probes into these developments for a larger Danish region. Based on a survey of local actions, it investigates whether the transmission grid can withstand the changes and to what extent grid limitations create barriers for industrial development. The work is based on geographical information system (GIS)-based analyses of production and demand, survey-based stakeholder consultation to unveil expected demand and production development, and grid analyses. Results indicate that the transmission system limits the development, and that permissions should not only be based on local conditions as reported by municipalities but should also factor in spatially distributed national targets. This thus calls for improved coordination between administrative levels. • Survey of near-and mid-term electricity demand increases. • Survey of near-and mid-term electricity production changes. • Energy system and transmission system load simulations for future scenarios. • Transmission grid sets a strong limitation on feasible development trajectories. • Analyses reveal a strong need to coordinate energy system and regional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar PV-based autonomous mini-grids represent an economically affordable and robust electrification option for rural communities. However, the initial investment cost for renewable energy technologies such as solar PV remains high for rural communities. Implementation of demand-side management (DSM) could increase the cost-efficiency of mini-grids in rural areas. This requires demand-side knowledge, but little is still known of electricity demands in recently electrified areas and, in particular, of how DSM implementation could impact mini-grids. The few studies available focus either on systems or on appliance levels while this study aims to determine cost-efficiency impacts of DSM implementation at a category level. A shifting strategy is applied based on classification into high priority loads and low priority loads. Autonomous rural mini-grid components sizing for four different load categories and load flexibility are carried out using particle swarm optimization. The results show that different load category combinations result in large variations in terms of possible levelized energy cost reductions and, thus, in terms of the cost-optimal sizing of the mini-grid components. The DSM implementation on the household and productive use categories have the largest capacity of reducing the levelized energy cost, by 45.8% and 20.7%, respectively, compared to the no demand-side management case. • Demand-side management (DSM) implementation at category level is investigated. • Mini-grid components sizing is carried out using a particle swarm optimization. • DSM implementation impacts battery size more than solar PV and diesel generator. • Households with DSM reduces levelized energy cost by 46% compared to no DSM case. • DSM improves the cost-competitiveness of solar PV-based autonomous mini-grids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of off-grid hybrid renewable energy systems (HRESs) is essential to rural electrification and global decarbonization. Based on 299 journal papers in the recent five years, this work conducts a state-of-the-art qualitative review and quantitative bibliometric analysis on the sizing optimization of off-grid HRESs. An overview of system configurations, energy management strategies, performance evaluation indicators, and sizing methodologies are presented, and bibliometric analysis is conducted to reveal the overall scope and mainstream of this research field. Finally, promising future works are summarized on the basis of current research gaps. The results of bibliometric analysis indicate that: (1) solar photovoltaic and batteries are the most common energy source and energy storage respectively, and wind-photovoltaic-battery-diesel is the most popular system configuration; (2) most researchers apply rule-based energy management strategies rather than optimized strategies, owing to their advantages of simple implementation and fast computation; (3) 97.99% of articles considers economic indicators in the sizing optimization model, and techno-economic feasibility is the essential research foundation at the planning stage; (4) meta-heuristic algorithms and the HOMER software tool are the two most popular sizing methodologies for off-grid HRESs. In future works, hybrid energy storage systems, deep reinforcement learning-based energy management strategy, sustainability and resilience indicators, as well as distributionally robust optimization-based sizing methodologies are promising research directions. Overall, the presented overviews and outlooks can provide holistic theoretical knowledge about sizing optimization research for practitioners, thus promoting the academic progress and practical implementation of off-grid HRESs. • Qualitative review and quantitative bibliometric analysis on energy system planning. • Overview of conventional and emerging renewable energy and storage technologies. • Classification of energy management strategies integrated with sizing optimization. • Multi-perspective projection of future works based on current knowledge gaps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energies are a key to reducing carbon emissions and enabling access to affordable energy for rural populations in many low- and middle-income countries. For this reason, many governments have started to introduce auctions for off-grid renewable energy. Despite their relevance for clean, accessible energy, the factors for successful or failed off-grid renewable energy tenders have not been broadly studied yet. This paper investigates the success factors for the successful implementation of off-grid energy auctions to enhance rural energy access in low- and middle-income countries. For the scope of this research, the off-grid energy tenders are considered successful if they lead to cost-efficient outcomes, have a high implementation rate and improve the equality of access to energy. Using success measures and success factors from the state of knowledge on energy auctions, three real-world cases from Peru, Uganda and Senegal are analysed and compared. The investigations show that auctioneers should strike a balance between 1) economies of scale and streamlining administrative procedures, 2) allowing adequate product designs for a diverse group of beneficiaries and 3) attracting enough bidders in this relatively young sector. Moreover, this paper confirms that balancing the developers' risks and public risks is essential in designing off-grid energy tenders and that there are several ways to do this. Furthermore, the advantages and limitations of different support payment types are illustrated. Finally, regarding governance, the real-world cases in this research underscore the importance of clarity about responsibilities and procedures, without which significant delays can be incurred. • Off-grid energy auction organizers must balance developers' risks with public risks. • Fixed subsidies provide predictability to policymakers regarding public expenses. • Results-based financing encourages further expansion of projects. • Lack of clarity about responsibilities and procedures can lead to significant delays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study proposes a procedure that can help address the challenge of achieving universal energy access by facilitating the process of rural electrification. Our holistic methodology enables the analysis of electrification processes and tailored for the usage of open-source data, allowing for efficient "green-field" and "brown-field" expansion planning. To apply this methodology to a non-electrified rural area, population distribution, terrain, existing infrastructure, and accessible information from public databases are necessary inputs. This methodology adopts a cluster-oriented approach and utilises multi-parameter cost surfaces to represent terrain in order to perform routing of medium-voltage (MV) and low-voltage (LV) networks for unelectrified communities. The solution from the routing algorithm is enhanced utilising advanced features such as road tracking and pole-sharing. Following the energy demand assessment of each community, both the options of interconnection to the national grid and supplying loads with standalone microgrids were evaluated and compared to define the most cost-effective solution. This study proposes a combination of bottom-up and top-down approaches, where the solution for each community separately, in terms of the optimal microgrids' generation portfolio and grid routing, is then used as input for an integrated optimisation to obtain a realistic and cost-effective electrification plan. The overall electrification is achieved by solving a nonconvex mixed integer linear programming (MILP) optimisation constrained by electrical parameters, considering the loading of elements and voltage drops along the lines. Finally, the procedure provides an estimate of the overall materials and costs incurred, as well as a georeferenced deployment of electrical equipment. To validate the procedure and demonstrate its feasibility, the approach was applied to the electrification plan of the Butha-Buthe region in Lesotho. The proposed tool is shared on GitHub to support the adoption of a comprehensive electrification approach. • A new MILP based integrated optimisation capable to manage electrical constraints, in charge of solving the Integrated area optimisation (previous releases of the tool were purely based on graph theory, providing sub-optimal solution and not capable of managing electrical constraints). • Novel cost surface creation: penalty factors associated to lines deployment have been refined to become closer to real life costs faced by DSOs. • Internalization of microgrid sizing process: a MILP based optimisation algorithm for hybrid microgrid sizing has been fully integrated within the procedure, avoiding the reliance on commercial external software. • LV grid routing and secondary substations siting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Norwegian Agrarian Association has the ambition to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 4–6 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 -eq) by 2030 in the agricultural sector. As a part of this, 10–25% is expected to come from substituting fossil fuels with renewable energy sources. This paper focuses on the effects of phasing-out fossil fuel consumption in on-field tractor operations with electrification by introducing battery-electric and/or fuel cell tractors and on-site renewable energy generation and storage. The results show that electrification of on-field tractor operations can be a techno-economically feasible pathway to reduce tractor energy-use-related CO 2 emissions in the agricultural sector. Annual CO 2 emissions are observed to reduce by 69% in 2030 and 97% in 2050. However, the CO 2 reduction potential can vary significantly based on the farm type. In this regard, the analysis revealed high sensitivity to manufacturing costs of zero-emission tractors (ZETs), which in combination with a low utilization rate can render the investment to ZETs unprofitable. Moreover, electrification increases electricity consumption, especially peak electricity demand in the agricultural sector. This effect can be reduced with on-site renewable energy generation and energy storage systems. • TIMES-models with differing spatial and temporal resolutions are soft-linked. • The long-term effects of electrification in the agricultural sector in Norway are analysed. • Electrification of on-field tractor operations can reduce energy-use related CO 2 emissions. • Adverse effects of electrification can be mitigated with distributed energy generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Benders decomposition with rolling horizon is proposed. • A novel approach is proposed to link energy storage in the rolling horizon technique. • A hybrid off-grid energy system for the Amazon region is optimized. • Micro-hydro, wind power, PV power, diesel generator and battery are considered. • A 100% renewable microgrid with a competitive cost of energy in Amazon is possible. Brazil is on the last mile of total electrification. However, the current challenge is in the Amazon region, where electrification has not been achieved through renewable energy. This paper presents a hybrid off-grid energy system for the Amazon region that considers the following technologies: battery system, diesel generator, micro-hydro, photovoltaic and wind turbine. We selected the states of Amazonas, Roraima and Tocantins, and we studied three scenarios. Benders decomposition and rolling horizon techniques are applied to find the optimal design and management strategy of a microgrid. We propose a novel approach to optimise energy storage for a whole year with hourly time step. A feasible design is proposed consisting of diesel generator, micro-hydro, photovoltaic, wind turbine, and battery system with diesel production as low as 0.7%. A 100% renewable microgrid is feasible for the Amazon region with an energy cost of 0.19 USD/kWh. The results are promising as they show competitive energy costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between solar off-grid electrification and socio-economic development of rural Sierra Leone through the lens of the Sustainable Livelihood approach. To this end, the study focuses on the level of household income, education, and fuel choices for cooking as three selected outcome variables. The empirical analysis is based on the field survey data from the recently electrified Mobai and non-electrified Pendembu - two rural communities in Kailahun district of the Eastern Province of Sierra Leone. The study finds that electrification associates with a move of the household income to a higher income bracket and an increase of daily learning hours of the primary and low-secondary school-age children by 42 min a day. Furthermore, the clean electricity access in Mobai has not resulted in the replacement of carbon-intensive fuels such as firewood or charcoal with renewable electricity for cooking. This is attributed to the lack of affordability of electricity and electric stoves, and also the taste preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates the nexus between electrification of the mountainous rural areas and selected indicators of socioeconomic development, such as household income, learning hours, and fuel choices in cooking behavior. The empirical investigation is based on the field survey in the recently electrified Yapshor and non-electrified Deh villages of the Rushan district of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan. The study reveals a strong positive impact of electrification of these villages on the level of household income and daily learning hours of school-age children. Getting electricity access leads to a 34–48% increase in household income and to 71–95 min of additional daily learning hours for school-age children. Furthermore, electricity access also strongly contributes to the substitution of firewood, coal, or animal manure with clean electricity for cooking. Due to individual taste preferences there is, however, still a substantial percentage of village dwellers who have not shifted to clean electricity for cooking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of decentralized solar photovoltaic (PV) mini-grids for rural electrification is increasing in developing countries, but little is known about the determinants of electricity consumption of communities electrified through these technologies. This paper examines the factors influencing the electricity consumption of rural households and small businesses electrified by off-grid PV mini-grids based on actual metered load data and a survey of 218 customers in two isolated small towns (Omorate and Tum) in Ethiopia. Empirical analyses were performed using Censored Tobit models. Results showed that the load curves of the two towns have different characteristics and patterns. While the load curve at Omorate is regularly interrupted for 13 h a day due to load-shedding, the mini-grid at Tum generates enough electricity to meet demand. Empirical results showed that electricity consumption of households is significantly associated with household size, income, dwelling type, number of rooms, cooling fans, cooking with electricity and load-shedding. In contrast, the electricity consumption of businesses is strongly linked with income, electricity price, number of rooms, number of cooling fans, refrigerators, number of other (productive use) appliances, and load-shedding/location. The findings suggest three key points. First, electricity demand of rural households and businesses is influenced by separate but interconnected sets of factors. Second, supply-side factors, appliance factors, type of end-use of electricity and location -specific factors influence demand more than income and price factors. Third, mini-grid policy making and dimensioning in rural East Africa must take into account the differing electricity demands and determinants across customer groups and locations. • Determinants of rural electricity consumption from off-grid mini-grids investigated. • Productive use customers consume four times the consumption of ordinary households. • Demand of households is correlated with income, appliances stock and load-shedding. • Demand of enterprises is linked with tariff rate, appliances stock and load-shedding. • Customers in warm and high temperature locations have higher electricity demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, 1.2 billion people lack access to electricity, mainly in rural areas of developing countries. In particular, 22 million people do not have electricity in Latin America and many governments are developing rural electrification programs to deal with this situation. Off-grid hybrid microgrids based on renewable energy are an efficient option for providing dispersed rural populations with access to electricity. However, microgrids are still a minority option, as governments of developing countries generally consider them expensive and not effective. In this context, the evaluation of projects based on hybrid microgrids is required in order to improve the knowledge about these technologies. In this paper, 13 microgrid projects in north-western Venezuela are presented and their environmental, technical, socioeconomic and institutional dimensions of sustainability are evaluated. For this purpose, an evaluation methodology based on some ad hoc criteria is developed, assessed by means of technical visits, semi-structured interviews and 106 surveys of technical operators and beneficiaries. The results show that microgrids can satisfy the energy needs of the population, while promoting technological change towards the use of more sustainable technologies. In addition, the key aspects for strengthening projects’ sustainability are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the trade-offs between economic and environmental performance of an autonomous energy system utilising an existing Micro hydro power plant while improving its future reliability. The analysis primarily focuses on developing sustainable alternative to excessive reliance on Diesel Gensets in fulfilling the increasing seasonal shortfall in electricity supply from standalone Micro hydros. First, a preliminary assessment is conducted using hypothetical future shortfall in electricity supply from a Micro hydro of 10%, 20% and 30%, compared to a baseline of 2% shortfall, which shows drastic increase in the environmental costs (combined human health and ecological) by as much as 400%, 900%, 1400% respectively from continued use of conventional Diesel Genset. In the next step, a ‘Micro hydro sustainability indicator’ is formulated as the ratio of environmental costs to net present costs of different hybrid options. This is estimated through a mixed assessment framework, which combines consumer engagement for understanding the current and the projected future diurnal and the seasonal electrical loads along with quantitative evaluation of the corresponding costs. Finally, a demonstration case study implements this framework at the Khun Pang micro hydropower project in Si Lanna National Park within Chiang Mai province, northern Thailand for two scenarios – Scenario 1 (circa 2016–17, annual shortfall of 4% i.e. 571 kW h); Scenario 2 (circa 2025, projected future annual shortfall of 12.5% i.e. 3904 kW h). For smaller unmet load of up to 4% in Scenario 1, Diesel Genset turns out to be the most preferred hybrid option, irrespective of whether the environmental costs were included alongside the net present costs or not. However, for an increased future load of 12.5% in Scenario 2, including the environmental costs makes the hybrid Micro hydro-PV-Diesel-Battery system cost-competitive to the Diesel only option. Considering a 25-year project lifespan, it becomes the most sustainable solution for retrofitting micro hydro facilities in ecologically sensitive locations in order to meet future shortfall in electricity supply, with improved renewable penetration of up to 97.5%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This cross-country study estimates the effect of household electrification on labor market outcomes for rural individuals in India and South Africa, two developing countries that have implemented large-scale rural electrification schemes in recent decades. Two identification strategies are used: propensity score matching and panel fixed effects estimation. We focus on three indicators of labor market success: employment, earnings and hours worked. We find that electrification raises the annual incomes earned by those who work in paid employment, for both men and women in both countries. For India, both genders work fewer hours, suggesting that electricity raises productivity. For South Africa, where the labor market has less absorptive capacity, there is no employment benefit of electrification. But women who work benefit the most from the productivity gains of electrification: they have greater increases in earnings than men. Our findings suggest that the benefits of electrification do not accrue universally, but rather depend on gender roles, supporting policies and the labor absorptive capacity of the economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The absence of publicly available up-to-date costs breakdown data on photovoltaic (PV)/hybrid mini-grids in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a barrier that needs to be resolved in order to overcome challenges in rural electrification planning, regulation, life-cycle operation, financing, and funding. The primary aim of this research is to provide better understanding of the cost structures of PV/hybrid mini-grid projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. The review on existing literature reveals significant lack of transparency and inconsistencies in PV/hybrid mini-grid costs. This paper aims to support the fact that there still remains a strong need to reduce the gap between current business model concepts and successfully implemented scale-up electrification models. Based on the experience of PV/hybrid mini-grids projects implemented in various rural communities of SSA, we propose a multi-dimensional cost analysis with a standardised break-down of the real costs of installed projects. Subsequently, we assess the main social and environmental implications and we identify barriers that appear to hinder successful PV mini-grid planning and subsequent implementation in SSA. Africa has the unique opportunity to utilize renewable energy as a primary energy source. Indeed, the continent has the potential to bring electricity especially to its rural population by means of PV/hybrid mini-grids. However, the capability of public and private sector investors to pre-evaluate projects is limited by the lack of locally available information on PV/hybrid mini-grid costs or the reliability of data (when available). Multi-dimensional cost analysis of social and environmental impacts from this study highlight that PV/hybrid mini-grids offer a unique opportunity to create a standardised framework for quantifying costs of PV/hybrid mini-grids in SSA, that can support decision-making processes for designing viable business models. Findings show that there is a strong need to minimise the data quality gap between current business model and that of successfully implemented PV/hybrid mini-grids electrification projects. This gap could be mitigated through studying the issues that influence mini-grid costs (both hardware and software). In addition to understanding other factors that can influence project costs such as the market maturity and remoteness of the site, organisation capability, development approach, and level of community involvement. Regarding policy considerations, stronger political will coupled with proactive rural electrification strategies and targeted renewable energy regulatory framework would be essential in order to establish viable dynamic domestic market for off grid renewables. In the presented benchmarking analysis, the experiences of public and private development organisations are synchronized to contribute to the furthest extent possible to facilitate the assessment. Those include the disaggregation of component costs according to their unit in order to make comparison more accurate and include site-specific parameters in the discussion of costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has demonstrated the potential of pico-hydro turbines to provide reliable electricity in applications such as rural electrification. However, the literature has primarily focused on the development of turbine systems for design environments where spatial and flow rate constraints tend to be non-restrictive. The work detailed in this paper presents the development of a novel, compact, high efficiency turbine capable of powering a compact electrochemical cell for off-grid water disinfection. The turbine with the generator is capable of generating nearly 100 W of power with a footprint of only 8″ in length and 4″ in diameter. A basic mathematical model of a DC generator is coupled to a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) turbine model to evaluate different system configurations. Following a Taguchi Method study to computationally explore the turbine design space, experimental testing of improved turbine configurations is shown to provide electrical power output improvements of 20%. Selection of a more compatible DC generator also provides electrical power output and efficiency improvements of a factor of 2 and 2.5 respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supplying electricity to populations without full access requires cost-effective, distributed sources of electricity generation. Diesel generators are a popular electricity source because of their low capital costs, but they can have high operating costs. Little data exist regarding the real-world behavior and operating costs of installed diesel microgrids. We report on the energy delivery and fuel consumption in three diesel microgrids in the Lake Sentani region of Papua, Indonesia. We found that these generators are operated below their capacity and that the fuel used per unit of electricity delivered can be over five times greater than expected based on published values. These estimations of specific fuel consumption suggest that nominally electrified areas are paying high costs for poor reliability, but cost-effective improvements are possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The electrification of current networks is developing to modernize and have a complete smart structure. Rural network electrification as a special part of the power grid will play a vital role in the future smart grid. However, energy management and balancing the supply and demand in rural area have created challenges for the distribution companies. In response to the mentioned challenges, the transactive energy (TE) as a new market based technology is applied to integrate the nine villages and manage the energy exchanging among them optimally. In order to evaluate the effects of TE technology on the rural network integration, three models are considered for analysis of the energy cost of each village and energy not supplied (ENS) in the presence of the renewable energy resources. First model assumed that none of the villages is equipped with renewable energy resources and all their electricity demand is fully provided by the power grid. While the renewable and non-renewable energy resources are considered for two other models. In the second model (individual mode), the villages cannot exchange energy with each other (local transaction market) and they can only connect to the power grid, but in the third model (integrated mode) the villages have an interconnected situation and may exchange energy with each other and grid under the TE management. Simulation results for the nine villages located in India are presented and evaluated. The results investigation indicated that the cost of energy and ENS are improved in the third model in comparison to other models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concentrating solar power (CSP) seems to be a promising solution for rural electrification in Sub-Saharan Africa. Small scale CSP plant appears to be most appropriate because it is suitable to the needs of rural communities: most of components can be found to be of low cost in the African market and there are available qualified local human resource to build the systems. A state of art of small scale CSP plants in the range of 1–500 kW e are reviewed in this paper to showcase previous and current works undertaken throughout the world. 35 small scale CSP plants are identified and reviewed in the paper. Technical analysis is conducted on the identified plants to understand their operating principles. The technical analysis highlighted reasons behind the choices made for every component from the solar field to the power block. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, over 1.1 billion people have no access to electricity. The consequences for the affected people include health hazards from fuels used for lighting, limits to learning when it gets dark, a short productive day and high expenditures on lighting alternatives. Since 85% of affected people live in rural areas in developing countries, increasing access to electricity through grid supply is logistically and financially challenging. As a potential solution to this issue off-grid solar chargers have been gaining popularity. This technology is under continuous development to achieve lower costs, faster battery charge and more electricity generation to prolong light hours. This review contains a comprehensive analysis of possible improvements to solar lights and the role solar PV concentrators can play in it. It aims to provide the reader with a critical comparison of existing solar PV concentrators and to consider the advantages and drawbacks if applied to portable solar systems used in developing countries. From this review, static nonimaging concentrators have been identified as best suited since they are easy to operate and maintain and have shown high reliability. A detailed comparison of existing static nonimaging concentrators is presented in this work and their suitability for being deployed in portable solar systems in developing countries is evaluated. It concludes that the existing designs need adjustment if to be used for this purpose. Thus, novel concentrator designs for portable solar systems for developing countries are needed to facilitate more off-grid solar power generation. It is the aim therefore of this review to stimulate more research in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are emphatic on the role of energy for development, with a target to ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services to about 1.3 billion people without electricity access, and to increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. For remote rural communities in developing countries, where grid extension is often expensive, decentralized biomass mini-grids can be a reliable electricity supply solution. This study investigated the technical and financial feasibility of decentralized electrification based on agricultural waste gasification in five Ghanaian communities. Results show that the projected electricity demand of the communities compares favorably with the potential energy generation from available agricultural residues, a situation that we envisage in many rural communities where agriculture is a predominant livelihood activity. As with most biomass electricity analysis, it is not profitable from the perspective of an entrepreneur with 100% private funding; however, by applying a customer tariff equal to the current expenditure on electricity equivalent uses in the communities, a subsidy of about 35% on initial investment would enable a private entrepreneur an internal rate of return of 15%, whereas a 60% subsidy could enable internal rate of return of 25%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural electrification has progressed unevenly across the world since 1945, with some rural communities gaining access to power decades earlier than others. We examine the association between early electrification and the quality of electricity service to households, testing the hypothesis that aging infrastructure compromises the quality of electricity service. Using the 2014–2015 ACCESS survey from rural India, we find that early electrification is associated with improvements in the quality of electricity service, even controlling for village size and distance to nearest town. A possible explanation for the finding is that early electrification generates economic gains that allow the rural community to invest in maintenance and upgrades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International engagement in sub-Saharan Africa's power sector is increasing rapidly. Aid is used to directly finance a growing number of foreign companies to implement power projects, accompanied by calls for policy and governance reform. This paper argues that while new and much-needed finance is becoming available, the current approach to foreign support poses several new challenges for broad and sustainable long-term development of the African power sector. They include a focus on creating market opportunities for non-African rather than domestic companies, the difficulty of delivering large-scale rural electrification through the externally advocated market-based approach, economic inefficiencies of current aid spending, and the difficulty of tackling complex, country-specific issues with continental electrification initiatives. To address these challenges, we suggest redirecting public funds towards rural electrification, increasing African ownership, individualising policy interventions and easing the current types of neoliberal conditionalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most populations in rural Africa have no access to electricity, in this study, a comparative analysis between grid extension and the implementation of renewable off-grid hybrid power system is carried out. The objective of the study is to determine the best feasible option. Napier, a farming village in the Western Cape province of South Africa was selected as the site for the comparative analysis and HOMER PRO software was used to develop an optimal system using the wind and solar resources of the selected site. The load profile considered in the analysis includes lighting, cooking and hot water demands. The best feasible option is determined based on the Net Present Cost of each feasible scenario. Sensitivity analysis on the current cost and the projected cost of hydrogen storage w conducted to observe the impact of the cost of hydrogen storage on the renewable off-grid system cost of energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind-photovoltaic stand-alone electrification systems are a suitable option to provide electricity to isolated villages, in the right context of rural areas far from the national grid. Many initiatives promote electrification projects in rural areas spread across a territory; generally considering each village independently, implementing local microgrids. However, for the case of several neighbouring villages, a regional microgrid connecting them together may reduce costs. Determining the optimal design requires solving complex optimisation combinatorial problems to explore possible generator combinations and microgrid connections. In order to find the solution, a two-scale procedure is proposed: first, a local-scale mathematical model is developed to design a microgrid for each village; and then, a regional-scale model is proposed to design a microgrid connecting the villages together. Both models minimise the lifecycle costs and optimise supply quality, while considering the electrical requirements of end-users and solving for the location of equipment and the microgrid structure. For its validation, the two-scale procedure is considered for five small villages in La Rioja (Northern Spain); according to an Administration request to promote electrification for rural development. As a result, an optimised regional microgrid is proposed, supplying the five villages together, using medium voltage lines between them and low voltage lines internally, with generators centrally located on a windier mountain peak. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the techno-economic feasibility of a grid-tied hybrid microgrid system for local inhabitants of Kallar Kahar near Chakwal city of Punjab province in Pakistan and investigates the potential for electricity generation through hybrid wind, photovoltaic and biomass system. The comprehensive resource assessment of wind, biomass and solar energy is carried out for grid integration. Homer Pro software is used to model a hybrid microgrid system. Optimization results and sensitivity analysis is carried out to ensure the robustness and cost-effectiveness of the proposed hybrid microgrid system. The total load has been optimally shared among generated power through wind, photovoltaic and biomass resources and surplus power is supplied to the national grid in case of low local demand of the load. The results of techno-economic feasibility study show that hybrid power system can generate more than 50 MW. The cost of energy based on peak load demand profiles are considered for both residential and commercial sectors. The cost of hybrid system for peak load of 73.6 MW is 180.2 million USD and levelized cost of energy is 0.05744 $/kWh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to model a hybrid energy system for rural India. In this analysis a hybrid renewable system consists of solar-wind-hydrokinetic-bioenergy is proposed. Overall analysis including Optimization and sensitive analysis are evaluated by HOMER software. Optimized results are evaluated considering total net present cost, cost of energy, annual electric generation, renewable fraction and CO 2 emission. The analysis is done in order to increase efficiency of the system with comparatively less cost. From this exercise it is found that, combinations of more varieties of different renewable energy system are better to fulfill futuristic demand. Futuristic demand is calculated by logistic growth model. The value of COEs ($) and total generations (kWh/yr) are 0.3563 and 133045; 0.247 and 170948; 0.242 and 179018; 0.241 and 179303 for the year (2012–2021), (2022–2031), (2032–2041) and (2042–2051) respectively. However some other combinations may produce more power, although in such cases, in order to storage excess power COE will increase. As compared to the year (2012–2021) to (2042–2051) the optimized COE of electricity is minimized, keeping Annual cost nearly constant and amount of electric generation is increased without much effect on environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mini-grids are seen as an important option for increasing access to electricity in non-electrified rural areas where grid-extension is unfeasible. Appropriately dimensioning and constructing mini-grids requires knowledge of electricity usage. There is currently a lack of measured load profiles from mini-grids and the most common method for estimating electricity usage is through appliance data collected via interviews. Thus, this paper compares and investigates the differences between measured daily load profiles and daily load profiles created from appliance data collected through interviews and how the two methods impact the dimensioning and operation of a mini-grid. This is done by comparing load profiles for an entire mini-grid, a household and SME customers with large loads. The paper reports differing results from the two methodologies. Generally, the results show that the interview-based load profiles fail to provide an accurate overall estimate. The calculated performance metrics for the two methods also shows large differences. The interview-based load profiles mainly fail to provide accurate estimates of energy and the energy related (capacity factor and load factor) performance metrics. Accordingly, the implications for mini-grid operators and developers could be significant. The interview-based load profiles indicate the mini-grid system to be considerably less technically and economically desirable than measurements show. Suggestions for how the interview process can be improved are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The causal relationships between electrification and development of poor, rural communities are complex and contextual. The existing literature focuses mainly on the impact of rural electrification and electricity use on local socio-economic development, while the reverse feedbacks of various social and economic changes on electricity demand and supply have not been fully characterized. Most electricity access impact assessments assume linear, one-way effects and linear growth in electricity demand. However, the projections rarely match the reality, creating challenges for rural utilities. From a modelling perspective, the lack of attention to dynamic complexities of the electricity-development nexus prevents the appropriate modelling of electricity demand over time and, hence, informed planning for and sizing of power plants. With the goal to improve modelling of the electricity-development nexus, we undertake a comprehensive review and extensive analysis of the peer-reviewed literature on electricity access and its impact on rural socio-economic development, and vice versa. We characterize and describe the nexus between electricity access and development through graphical causal diagrams that allow us to capture, visualise and discuss the complexity and feedback loops. Based on this, we suggest guidelines for developing appropriate models able to include and simulate such complexities. Our analysis confirms that electricity use is interconnected through complex causal relations with multiple dimensions of socio-economic development, viz. income generating activities, market production and revenues, household economy, local health and population, education, and habits and social networks. The causal diagrams can be seen as a first step of the conceptualization phase of model building, which aims at describing and understanding the structure of a system. The presence of multiple uncertain parameters and complex diffusion mechanisms that describe the complex system under analysis suggests that systems-dynamic simulations can allow modelling such complex and dynamic relations, as well as dealing with the high uncertainties at stake, especially when coupled with stochastic approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humanitarian and other development organisations are calling for replicable self-sustaining solutions to shared micro-utilities to ensure equitable modern energy delivery to energy-deprived village communities. Distributed smart microgrid technology allows for the efficient integration of sustainable resources to provide localised energy delivery at improved levels of reliability and resilience. Smart energy management in decentralised renewable systems requires computational intelligence to implement pivotal energy-aware/cost-aware procedures in decision-making for a conceptualised next generation Smart Village microgrid platform. Smart Village microgrid control automation aims at offering pragmatic and, intelligent control capabilities to perform price-based demand response energy management. This paper proposes the use of cascaded control abstraction in the implementation of a price-sensitive cyber-physical Smart Grid approach in a rural off-grid microgrid environment. The modular microgrid design integrates renewable energy resources through an adaptive control algorithm developed in a model-based design approach. The solution is based on distributed market-based control, using multi-agent transactive principles to navigate automated demand response. Multi-priority load clusters with the selective parallel control of non-intelligent device groups allow for prioritised supply/demand resource coordination. The proposed Smart Village solution operates as a self-regulating smart microgrid energy management system and by virtue of its market-based transactive reasoning approach is able to meet multiple operating requirements of rural village energy systems. Simulation results for this value-based control technique highlight the value of customer engagement combined with supply-, demand- and economic cost optimisation for hybrid renewable distributed energy microgrids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy management and sustainable resources are regarded as major concerns when designing hybrid energy systems. Finding an efficient framework that combines reliable design and satisfies continuous operation at minimal cost at all conditions is essential for both customers and investors. In this regard, this paper details the adoption of a creative approach using HOMER software to come up with a flexible design of a hybrid system that includes conventional and renewable energy sources. This study involves a comprehensive survey in this field, detailed techno-economic assessments, analyses of operational performance, and the evaluation of environmental aspects pertaining to the aforementioned system. It investigates all conditions that influence the system for both off-grid and on-grid connections by examining it over a typical remote Malaysian village. A sensitivity analysis was also conducted at all stages to verify the optimum design among all changes of different sell-back, power purchase, fuel prices, load growth, and other variables. Also, this study was proceeded to determine and examine the technical, economical and environmental aspects of the system. The results showed that the optimum system for both off-grid and on-grid connections consists of 300 kWp of photovoltaic (PV) modules, two diesel generators rated at 100 kW and 50 kW, a 150 kW converter and 330 kWh battery banks. The total Net Present Cost (NPC) and Cost of Energy (COE) fell within (1500000.0–2450000.0 $) and (0.151–0.233 $/kWh), respectively, for different renewable energy fraction (RF) values of (23–55.43%) and CO 2 emissions of (245284.0–570643.0 kg/Yr). Moreover, the results indicated the importance of considering all parameters prior to the implementation of any hybrid system in order to realize the proposed objectives. The study demonstrates the high capability of the proposed flexible design in meeting the loads, support continuous operation, and reduce the harmful emissions towards the environment over all conditions for both off-grid and on-grid connections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar home systems (SHS) and solar photovoltaic village power supply systems can play an important role in the supply of electrical energy to off-grid areas. This paper presents a comparison of solar home systems and village power supply systems using two different types of battery technologies, namely lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) and lead-acid (Pb) batteries. The developed models were implemented in Matlab/Simulink where solar radiation, temperature and electrical load data from Dodoma, the capital of Tanzania were used as model inputs. Two topologies were analyzed for SHS: A system which is directly coupled to the battery and another system which uses a Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) charge controller. The main idea of analyzing these two topologies was to find an affordable solution for off-grid population, but at the same time the selected topology should have the ability of extracting maximum output from the PV panel. Since most of the off-grid settlements in Tanzania today use SHS with lead-acid batteries as storage, analysis was carried out for SHS with lead-acid batteries and SHS with lithium-ion batteries by simulating and optimizing the systems for 20 years. The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for both storage systems was compared and it was found that the SHS with lithium-ion (NCA) battery generally had a lower LCOE compared to the SHS with lead-acid battery. This is mainly due to both the longer life time of NCA batteries and the reduction of the price of NCA batteries as a result of significantly increasing global production scales. For the case of solar photovoltaic village power supply systems, an energy management system was implemented to optimize power flows in a hybrid storage system containing both lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries. Optimization of this “hybrid” system led to a selection of both types of batteries with small capacity of lead-acid battery (0.24 kW h) compared to NCA battery (1.44 kW h) backed up with diesel generator. Further analysis was done regarding the benefits of village power supply systems over individual SHS, and it was found that the LCOE for solar PV village power supply systems was lower than the LCOE for single SHS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural electrification is a critical global challenge specifically in developing countries and Bangladesh is no exception. Most of the people live in the rural areas of the country and having no access to grid electricity hindering the development of these areas and the overall progress of the country's economy severely. In this regard, renewable energy based hybrid mini-grid can be a viable solution to ensure access to electricity for all. This paper presents a case study of supplying electricity through hybrid mini-grid to the rural unelectrified areas of the northern region of Bangladesh, and provides an analysis of its business creation, operation and related challenges. The study involves modelling of three alternative configurations for electricity generation with the different combination of solar energy, biomass generator, diesel generator and battery storage resources. Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable (HOMER) software is used to carry out the techno-economic analysis and identify the optimal off-grid system configuration. The analysis exposed that the per unit cost of electricity from the optimum off-grid supply configuration is much higher than the regulated tariff for grid connected residential consumers and cannot reach grid parity even with the full capital subsidy. However, the cost of off-grid supply is economical than the diesel-only supply option or the cost of owning a solar home system. The analysis further considered different electricity selling tariff to obtain a practical and reasonable payback period to make the proposed hybrid mini-grid system economically worthwhile. From the emission analysis, it is found that the proposed hybrid system would produce 75% lower CO 2 than the existing methods of fulfilling energy needs in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The future of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems as a viable alternative to conventional fossil fuel-based resources seem promising with the rapid decline in the cost over the last decade. Notwithstanding, PV technology is yet to make a meaningful contribution in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) where the need for energy is deemed critical. The reason being that the technology is perceived by policymakers in SSA not to be capable of functioning profitably as an independent economic unit that requires project financing. Regrettably, the widely utilized levelized cost of energy (LCOE) in the literature for PV economic assessment only provides a benchmark to assess grid parity. A detailed economic assessment that includes risks and actual capital financing method is urgently needed to encourage potential investors and foster adoption. In this paper, a generalized economic model is developed to assess the cost-benefit of off-grid PV system. The developed method is demonstrated on a case study of rural Gusau, Nigeria. The results show that the feasibility of the proposed system is highly location dependent. Overall, conclusion is drawn that PV technology is eligible for project financing as it can repay its loan within the stipulated time considering the current infrastructure and energy policies in Nigeria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Myanmar's energy poverty has significantly hindered the economic and human development in the country. 66% of total population lives in rural areas, but Myanmar's national grid is concentrated in urban low-land areas, limiting the energy access amid rural populations. Although conventional rural electrification projects have largely deployed diesel generators for their low upfront cost, this study demonstrates the economic competitiveness of Energy Storage Systems (ESS) and solar energy in enhancing rural energy access. Contrary to the conventional belief that these relatively new technologies are exorbitant options for low income groups, this study provides a practical solution for the leap-frogging of developing countries by proving that enhanced energy efficiency can offset the high upfront-cost of new technology options. This study compares performance among various energy configurations using HOMER and examines economic aspects of each option. For simulation, three load scenarios are designed and used to better reflect different local energy demands in rural villages. Findings confirm that a hybrid smart grid system maintains its economic and technical competitiveness under changing load conditions, while diesel based power generation is still necessary to ensure stable power supply. Finally, cost comparison with a grid extension option which the government of Myanmar is currently pursuing under its National Electrification Plan will reaffirm that the country should consider extensive adoption of sustainable energy technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]