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Previous modeling and observational studies have established that it is possible to accurately monitor the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) at 26.5°N using a coast-to-coast array of instrumented moorings supplemented by direct transport measurements in key boundary regions (the RAPID/MOCHA/WBTS Array). The main sources of observational and structural errors have been identified in a variety of individual studies. Here a unified framework for identifying and quantifying structural errors associated with the RAPID array-based AMOC estimates is established using a high-resolution (eddy resolving at low-mid latitudes, eddy permitting elsewhere) ocean general circulation model, which simulates the ocean state between 1978 and 2010. We define a virtual RAPID array in the model in close analogy to the real RAPID array and compare the AMOC estimate from the virtual array with the true model AMOC. The model analysis suggests that the RAPID method underestimates the mean AMOC by ∼1.5 Sv (1 Sv = 10 6  m 3  s −1 ) at ∼900 m depth, however it captures the variability to high accuracy. We examine three major contributions to the streamfunction bias: (i) due to the assumption of a single fixed reference level for calculation of geostrophic transports, (ii) due to regions not sampled by the array and (iii) due to ageostrophic transport. A key element in (i) and (iii) is use of the model sea surface height to establish the true (or absolute) geostrophic transport. In the upper 2000 m, we find that the reference level bias is strongest and most variable in time, whereas the bias due to unsampled regions is largest below 3000 m. The ageostrophic transport is significant in the upper 1000 m but shows very little variability. The results establish, for the first time, the uncertainty of the AMOC estimate due to the combined structural errors in the measurement design and suggest ways in which the error could be reduced. Our work has applications to basin-wide circulation measurement arrays at other latitudes and in other basins as well as quantifying systematic errors in ocean model estimates of the AMOC at 26.5°N. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Predictability of small-scale ocean variability from large-scales is demonstrated. [•] Spectral nudging of large-scales can recover small-scales of a quasi-geostrophic model. [•] A practical scheme for assimilating large scales and point observations is proposed. [•] Limited point observations are more valuable if large-scales are spectrally nudged. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Integrating the observations gathered by different platforms into a unique physical picture of the environment is a fundamental aspect of networked ocean observing systems. These are constituted by a spatially distributed set of sensors and platforms that simultaneously monitor a given ocean region. Remote sensing from satellites is an integral part of present ocean observing systems. Due to their autonomy, mobility and controllability, underwater gliders are envisioned to play a significant role in the development of networked ocean observatories. Exploiting synergism between remote sensing and underwater gliders is expected to result on a better characterization of the marine environment than using these observational sources individually. This study investigates a methodology to estimate the three dimensional distribution of geostrophic currents resulting from merging satellite altimetry and in situ samples gathered by a fleet of Slocum gliders. Specifically, the approach computes the volumetric or three dimensional distribution of absolute dynamic height (ADH) that minimizes the total energy of the system while being close to in situ observations and matching the absolute dynamic topography (ADT) observed from satellite at the sea surface. A three dimensional finite element technique is employed to solve the minimization problem. The methodology is validated making use of the dataset collected during the field experiment called Rapid Environmental Picture-2010 (REP-10) carried out by the NATO Undersea Research Center-NURC during August 2010. A marine region off-shore La Spezia (northwest coast of Italy) was sampled by a fleet of three coastal Slocum gliders. Results indicate that the geostrophic current field estimated from gliders and altimetry significantly improves the estimates obtained using only the data gathered by the glider fleet. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Multiscale analysis is used to derive two sets of coupled models, each based on the same distinguished limit, to represent the interaction of the midlatitude oceanic synoptic scale—where coherent features such as jets and rings form—and the mesoscale, defined by the internal deformation scale. The synoptic scale and mesoscale overlap at low and mid latitudes, and are hence synonymous in much of the oceanographic literature; at higher latitudes the synoptic scale can be an order of magnitude larger than the deformation scale, which motivates our asymptotic approach and our nonstandard terminology. In the first model the synoptic dynamics are described by ‘Large Amplitude Geostrophic’ (LAG) equations while the eddy dynamics are quasigeostrophic. This model has order one isopycnal variation on the synoptic scale; the synoptic dynamics respond to an eddy momentum flux while the eddy dynamics respond to the baroclinically unstable synoptic density gradient. The second model assumes small isopycnal variation on the synoptic scale, but allows for a planetary scale background density gradient that may be fixed or evolved on a slower time scale. Here the large-scale equations are just the barotropic quasigeostrophic equations, and the mesoscale is modeled by the baroclinic quasigeostrophic equations. The synoptic dynamics now respond to both eddy momentum and buoyancy fluxes, but the small-scale eddy dynamics are simply advected by the synoptic-scale flow—there is no baroclinic production term in the eddy equations. The energy budget is closed by deriving an equation for the slow evolution of the eddy energy, which ensures that energy gained or lost by the synoptic-scale flow is reflected in a corresponding loss or gain by the eddies. This latter model, aided by the eddy energy equation—a key result of this paper—provides a conceptual basis through which to understand the classic baroclinic turbulence cycle. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Short-term flow and water temperature fluctuations in Sagami Bay were examined using mooring and hydrographic data observed during the non-large-meander path (NLM) of the Kuroshio. In the surface layer (<150m), the flow fluctuation is predominant and is excited by the sudden strong eastward flow with speeds greater than 20cms−1 in the central part of the bay. This flow is a part of an intrusion of Kuroshio water via the Oshima West Channel into the bay and/or a cyclonic circulation in the northern part of the bay. The cyclonic circulation, which is approximately balanced under the geostrophic flow relationship, is mainly generated or enhanced by the intrusion, which is accompanied by eastward propagation of the small meander of the Kuroshio south of Japan during the transition from the nearshore non-large-meander path (nNLM) to the offshore non-large-meander path (oNLM), regardless of season. The water temperature fluctuation in the subsurface layer (∼150m) is caused by upwelling of cold deeper water and is closely related to the eastward flow fluctuations in the surface layer in the central part of the bay. Our analysis leads us the conclusion that the upwelling occurs as the response of the subsurface density field to the surface flow field under the Earth’s rotation. Additionally, the intrusion of Kuroshio water via the Oshima West Channel tends to cause, not only cyclonic circulation and upwelling in the northern part of the bay, but also the Kyucho, which is the coastal density current under the Earth’s rotation, in the bay’s coastal area during the non-large-meander path (NLM). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An intense oceanic front was detected at the west of Mallorca Island (Balearic sub-basin of the North Western Mediterranean Sea) during an oceanographic survey in December 2009. This contribution analyses the hydrography and geostrophic motions observed at the front, together with the ageostrophic motion derived from the omega equation. The front separated resident Atlantic water (to the north) from more recent Atlantic water (to the south). Maximum upward vertical velocities of 6m/day were found at the northern side of the front, related with relative maxima of dissolved oxygen and fluorescence. The vertical velocities in this study are mainly due to relative vorticity advection. AVISO altimetry data is used to discuss the advection of the front over a nearby mooring equipped with temperature and salinity sensors at 300m below the sea surface. The biological implications of the front are discussed by means of acoustic backscatter data. There is an observed increase in mesopelagic fish biomass at the frontal area. Our hypothesis states that the vertical velocities associated to the front would lead to the observed increase in mesopelagic biomass near the front, which is in agreement with previous studies in other frontal systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A perceived limitation of z-coordinate models associated with spurious diapycnal mixing in eddying, frontal flow, can be readily addressed through appropriate attention to the tracer advection schemes employed. It is demonstrated that tracer advection schemes developed by Prather and collaborators for application in the stratosphere, greatly improve the fidelity of eddying flows, reducing levels of spurious diapycnal mixing to below those directly measured in field experiments, ∼1×10−5 m2 s−1. This approach yields a model in which geostrophic eddies are quasi-adiabatic in the ocean interior, so that the residual-mean overturning circulation aligns almost perfectly with density contours. A reentrant channel configuration of the MIT General Circulation Model, that approximates the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, is used to examine these issues. Virtual analogs of ocean deliberate tracer release field experiments reinforce our conclusion, producing passive tracer solutions that parallel field experiments remarkably well. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The California Current System is described in its regional setting using two modern datasets. Argo provides a broadscale view of the entire eastern North Pacific Ocean for the period 2004–2010, and the High Resolution XBT Network includes transects from Honolulu to San Francisco (1991–2010) and to Los Angeles (2008–2010). Together these datasets describe a California Current of 500–800km width extending along the coast from 43°N to 23°N. The mean southward transport of the California Current is about 5Sv off Central and Southern California, with about 2.5Sv of northward flow on its inshore side. Interannual variations are 50% or more of the mean transports. The salinity minimum in the core of the California Current is supplied by the North Pacific Current and by freshwater from the northern continental shelf and modified by alongshore geostrophic and across-shore Ekman advection as well as eddy fluxes and air–sea exchange. The heat and freshwater content of the California Current vary in response to the fluctuating strength of the alongshore geostrophic flow. On its offshore side, the California Current is influenced by North Pacific Intermediate Waters at its deepest levels and by Eastern Subtropical Mode Waters on shallower density surfaces. In total, the sources of the California Current, its alongshore advection, and its strong interactions with the inshore upwelling region and the offshore gyre interior combine to make this a rich and diverse ecosystem. The present work reviews previous contributions to the regional oceanography, and uses the new datasets to paint a spatially and temporally more comprehensive description than was possible previously. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Inter-annual variability in the magnitude and timing of the spring bloom was investigated for the Oyashio region (40 °-48 °N, 143 °E-152 °E) using 10 years (from 1998 to 2007) of satellite ocean-color data. Geostrophic currents were examined using satellite altimeter data. Early spring blooms (>1.5mgm−3) occurred in early April 2001 and late March 2002. The 2001 bloom continued for one month. Late blooms occurred from mid-May 1999, early June 2004 and late April 2006, continuing for about 1 month, 8 days and 16 days, respectively. A strong bloom (4.7mgm−3) also occurred in mid-April 1998; however, it terminated in early May. We classified the Oyashio region based on the pattern of temporal variation of Chl-a concentration from March to June. The spatio-temporal variability in Chl-a concentration during spring was different among years. The area where Chl-a concentration was highest in April was more extensive in 2001, 2002 and 2006 than usual. In 1999, the area where Chl-a concentration was highest in May was the widest among the 10 years. Mesoscale eddies and currents with high velocity were frequently observed in the area of high Chl-a concentration east of Hokkaido, propagating Coastal Oyashio Water of low salinity and low density into the oceanic region. That strengthened stratification in the surface layer. We suggest that this seaward transfer of coastal water could be one of the important factors for phytoplankton distribution in two ways: (1) horizontal advection of water with high Chl-a concentration and (2) enhancement of stratification in the oceanic region. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The ECCO–GODAE global estimate of the ocean circulation 1992–2007 is analyzed in the region of the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF), including the Southern Ocean flow south of Australia. General characteristics are an intense month-to-month noise, only weak trends, and an important annual cycle (which is not the focus of attention). Apart from the details of the unresolved flows within the various passages, and right on the equator, the region and its large-scale climate effects appears to be accurately diagnosed by large-scale geostrophic balance, so that the ITF can be calculated either from the upstream or the downstream balanced flow (but no simple reference level can be defined). The INSTANT program occurs during a more or less typical three-year period. Indications of response to the large 1997–1998 El Niño are weak. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Seven whale sharks were tracked using satellite-linked tags from Ningaloo Reef, off northern Western Australia, following tagging in April and June 2002 and April–May 2005. We investigated how the movements of those whale shark tracks were influenced by geostrophic surface currents during sequential one-week periods by using a passive diffusion model parameterised with observed starting locations of the sharks and weekly maps of surface current velocity and direction (derived from altimetry). We compared the outputs from the passive diffusion model and maps of chlorophyll- a concentration (SeaWiFs/MODIS) and with the actual tracks of the sharks using GIS and generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLMM). The GLMM indicated very little support for passive diffusion with sea-surface ocean currents influencing whale shark distributions in the north eastern Indian Ocean. Moreover, the sharks' movements correlated only weakly with the spatial distribution of sea-surface chlorophyll- a concentrations. The seven whale sharks had average swimming speeds comparable with those recorded in other satellite tracking studies of this species. Swimming speeds of the seven sharks were similar to those reported in previous studies and up to three times greater than the maximum sea-surface current velocities that the sharks encountered while traversing into lower southerly latitudes (moving northward towards the equator). Our results indicate that whale sharks departing from Ningaloo travel actively and independently of near-surface currents where they spend most of their time despite additional metabolic costs of this behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) have spawning grounds in waters stretching from south of Okinawa to east of Taiwan. This species is typical of fishes that spawn seasonally in small, limited areas. Any marked change in the marine environment of the spawning grounds is likely to have a direct impact on larval survival and growth. We conducted rearing experiments on larvae to investigate these impacts and found that a reduction in temperature resulted in poor growth during the juvenile stage, even if larval survival rates did not change. In the wild, this reduced growth rate is likely to reduce survival rates because smaller juveniles have poorer swimming ability and their ability to avoid predators is also reduced. This is especially important since the Kuroshio current, which connects the spawning grounds to the nursery grounds, transports larvae rapidly because of its faster surface current (the western boundary current), thus larvae arriving too quickly in coastal waters can be exposed to very cold temperatures. An ocean model (MIROC) simulation under a climate warming scenario () predicted that the temperature in the spawning ground would be 3°C higher in 2100 than in present time, while the transport to nursery grounds would also be faster. In this case, the combination of several mechanisms would control the recruitment of juvenile bluefin. On the spawning grounds, high temperatures exceeding the optimal range would increase larvae mortality and any surviving larvae would reach the nursery grounds more quickly, but warmer coastal waters would have less negative impact on their growth. We forced a model of larval drift with MIROC output fields to study the complex response of bluefin tuna recruitment. As a result, the predicted survival rates of larvae arriving in Japanese coastal waters in 2100 would decline to 36% of present recruitment levels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A field experiment was conducted across the Luzon Strait in July 2007, and a total of 51 profiles covering variables of horizontal velocity, temperature, salinity, and pressure were collected at 11 stations. Using this observation, the volume transport through the Luzon Strait, its differences between July 2007 and October 2005, and the distribution of subtidal flow and geostrophic flow have been investigated. The net transport has a two-layer vertical structure, which is eastward both in the upper layer (<26kgm−3 σ 0), and in the intermediate layer (26–27.3kgm−3 σ 0), while it is westward in the deeper layer (>27.3kgm−3 σ 0), with respective values of 3.0, 4.0, and −1.5Sv. The net transport is eastward, and estimated to be 5.5Sv. The distribution of the subtidal flow in the intermediate layer shows that a westward flow exists in the northern part, countered by an eastward flow existing in the southern part of the strait. This distribution is in direct contrast to the previous results obtained in October 2005, in which a westward flow occurs in the south countered by an eastward flow in the north in the intermediate layer. This suggests that the flow pattern varies greatly from October 2005 to July 2007 not only in the upper layer but also in the intermediate layer. The deep layer, on the other hand, shows few changes between the two observation periods. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Inferring geostrophic velocity fields from CTD data distributions can be handicapped by the impossibility of referring dynamic height to a no-motion level. This is often the case over the continental shelf, but also at open sea, even when velocity measurements (e.g. from a vessel mounted ADCP) are available. In this paper we test and compare four different methods aimed to estimate the geostrophic and total velocity fields from hydrodynamical data. Two of them can either use only CTD data (then relying on the election of a no-motion level) or incorporate ADCP data (through a multivariate interpolation); the other two methods always combine CTD and ADCP data. A 3D primitive equation model is used to reproduce realistic scenarios that provide control velocity fields and typical CTD and ADCP data profiles. The chosen scenarios represent different dynamic situations (in terms of data quality, bathymetric constrictions and dynamical characteristics such as the relative ageostrophic/geostrophic velocity variance) and make possible a broad discussion on the capabilities and limitations of the examined methods. Results show that the performance of the methods is highly dependent on the dynamics to be resolved. The combination of CTD and ADCP data constitutes the best approach for most of the analyzed situations, though special attention has to be paid when dealing with low quality ADCP data and when the circulation is characterized by intense non-divergent ageostrophic velocities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We introduce a mixed discontinuous/continuous finite element pair for ocean modelling, with continuous quadratic layer thickness and discontinuous velocity. We investigate the finite element pair applied to the linear shallow-water equations on an f-plane. The element pair has the property that all geostrophically balanced states which strongly satisfy the boundary conditions have discrete divergence equal to exactly zero and hence are exactly steady states of the discretised equations. This means that the finite element pair has excellent geostrophic balance properties. We also show that the element pair applied to the non-rotating linear shallow-water equations does not have any spurious small eigenvalues. We illustrate these properties using numerical tests and provide convergence calculations which show that the numerical solutions have errors which decay quadratically with element edge length for both velocity and layer thickness. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The spin-up timescale in large-scale ocean models, i.e., the time it takes to reach an equilibrium state, is determined by the slow processes in the deep ocean and is usually in the order of a few thousand years. As these equilibrium states are taken as initial states for many calculations, much computer time is spent in the spin-up phase of ocean model computations. In this note, we propose a new approach which can lead to a very large reduction in spin-up time for quite a broad class of existing ocean models. Our approach is based on so-called Jacobian–Free Newton–Krylov methods which combine Newton’s method for solving non-linear systems with Krylov subspace methods for solving large systems of linear equations. As there is no need to construct the Jacobian matrices explicitly the method can in principle be applied to existing explicit time-stepping codes. To illustrate the method we apply it to a 3D planetary geostrophic ocean model with prognostic equations only for temperature and salinity. We compare the new method to the ‘ordinary’ spin-up run for several model resolutions and find a considerable reduction of spin-up time. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The development of an adaptive (in space and time) ocean model from an existing adaptive finite-volume Navier–Stokes model is described. A flexible and efficient quadtree spatial discretisation is used which requires collocation of all variables (i.e. an A-grid discretisation). We demonstrate that the use of an approximate projection method allows for implicit damping of instabilities generally associated with the A-grid, at the expense of a relatively small amount of numerical energy dissipation, while accurately preserving dispersive properties and geostrophic balance. The finite-volume formulation also maintains second-order spatial accuracy at all solid boundaries. Test cases demonstrate the efficacy of the adaptive ocean model, and the advantages it has in terms of efficient representation of multi-scale behaviour within a single model. The model is freely available as open-source code. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]