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The design of energy and climate policy is usually seen as an 'expert' domain, relying on technical tools such as economic analysis. However, policy requires the support of politicians and citizens alike, through the democratic process. Many policies, such as reducing carbon emissions from homes and transport, also affect people's lives directly. It is thus necessary to supplement technical analysis with methods that allow an exploration of people's views, values and behaviours. One such method is codesign, whereby groups of citizens work with policy analysts to develop strategies informed by the lived experience of citizens, as well as the specialist knowledge of analysts. There is a history of co-design approaches in public services such as healthcare, but there have been few attempts to co-design public policy measures. This paper reports on a Citizens' Panel, a representative group of people working with specialists to create co-designed policy recommendations for reducing carbon emissions from homes. The process revealed that policy co-design can provide detailed, viable proposals. In this case, panellists emphasised the necessity of leadership and support from government; tailored, consistent information; targeted regulation; and financial incentives. Finally, the wider potential role for policy co-design for energy and climate is addressed. • Co-design processes are widely used but rarely applied to the design of energy and climate policy. • Co-design processes can embed citizen perspectives in policy design. • The paper reports on an experimental panel on home energy decarbonisation. • Co-design can ensure that policies are effective and will gain support of politicians and publics. • Changes to cultures of policymaking are needed to embed such approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Energy efficiency, which is one of the pillars of the EU's Energy Union strategy, has been proposed as a solution, namely as a highly effective pathway to improve economic competitiveness and sustainability of the European economy, lower emissions, reduce energy dependency and increase security of supply, and job creation. The paper reviews the EU strategies and policies on energy efficiency and argues that further focus should be placed on industrial energy efficiency. Despite a decline in energy consumption in recent years in industry, this sector is one of the largest users of energy in the EU. Therefore, the paper reviews the extent to which the European and national policies in the selected jurisdictions, such as Italy and the UK address energy efficiency in industry and whether there are any measures in place to promote it. Highlights • Legal certainty is required in industrial energy efficiency policies. • White Certificates play a major role in industrial energy efficiency in Italy. • Yet, constant changes in the WC regulations can act as an investment barrier. • The UK's Energy Efficiency policy is underpinned with decarbonisation of the industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition towards a more decarbonised, resilient and distributed energy system requires local initiatives, such as Smart Local Energy Systems (SLES), which lead communities to gain self-sufficiency and become electricity islands. Although many SLES projects have been recently deployed, only a few of them have managed to be successful, mostly due to an initial knowledge gap in the SLES planning and deployment phases. This paper leverages the knowledge from the UK's largest SLES demonstrator in the Orkney Islands, named the Responsive FLEXibility (ReFLEX) project, to propose a framework that will help communities to successfully implement a SLES. First, this paper describes how the multi-services electrical SLES implemented in Orkney reduces the impact of the energy transition on the electrical infrastructure. We identify and discuss the main enablers and barriers to a successful SLES, based on a review of SLES projects in the UK. Second, to help future communities to implement SLES, we extend the Smart Grid Architecture Model (SGAM) into a comprehensive multi-vector Smart Local Energy Architecture Model (SLEAM) that includes all main energy services, namely power, heat and transport. This extended architecture model describes the main components and interaction layers that need to be addressed in a comprehensive SLES. Next, to inform successful deployment of SLES, an extensive list of key performance indicators for SLES is proposed and implemented for the ReFLEX project. Finally, we discuss lessons learnt from the ReFLEX project and we list required future technologies that enable communities, energy policy makers and regulatory bodies to best prepare for the energy transition. [Display omitted] • Framework that assists local communities to deploy smart local energy systems. • Extension of Smart Grid Architecture Model to Smart Local Energy Architecture Model. • Comprehensive list of smart local energy systems key performance indicators (KPI). • Lessons learnt from ReFLEX, one of the UK's largest local energy system demonstrators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Utilizes 111 expert interviews and 50 site visits to examine UK industrial decarbonization. • Explores sociotechnical pathways, capabilities, and learning processes. • Harnesses a challenge-oriented regional innovation systems (CoRIS) framework. • Reflects on deeper issues of incumbency, innovation, and incremental vs. transformative change. Few sectors in the global economy need deep decarbonization as much as heavy industry, which is currently the largest and fastest growing source of global carbon emissions. Based on an original dataset of 111 expert interviews and 52 site visits, this paper asks: what sociotechnical pathways, capabilities, and regional innovation systems are emerging to support industrial decarbonization? It combines and applies insights from evolutionary economic geography and transitions studies, such as sociotechnical capabilities and learning, as well as spatial frameworks such as challenge-oriented regional innovation systems (CoRIS) and green industrial restructuring. It utilizes these collective concepts of pathways, capabilities and CoRIS to explore the organizational and technological, individual, and systems level dimensions of industrial decarbonization efforts ongoing across Great Britain. We find that within industrial net-zero clusters, spatial and technological proximities are being effectively leveraged, especially through new forms of networking, collaboration, and partnerships. CoRIS provides the basis for greater reflection on perennial transitions issues, both within and across clusters, related to incumbency and innovation, in addition to spotlighting emergent issues such as light versus deep green restructuring and incremental versus transformative change. In simpler terms, industrial decarbonization unfolds as a multi-scalar process. Industrial decarbonization exhibits both incremental and transformative patterns of change. Industrial decarbonization lastly involves dynamic processes that coevolve across a spectrum of sociotechnical attributes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The notion of ‘fuel poverty’, referring to affordable warmth, underpins established research and policy agendas in the UK and has been extremely influential worldwide. In this context, British researchers, official policymaking bodies and NGOs have put forward the notion of ‘transport poverty’, building on an implicit analogy between (recognised) fuel poverty and (neglected) transport affordability issues. However, the conceptual similarities and differences between 'fuel' and 'transport' poverty remain largely unaddressed in the UK. This paper systematically compares and contrasts the two concepts, examining critically the assumption of a simple equivalence between them. We illustrate similarities and differences under four headings: (i) negative consequences of lack of warmth and lack of access; (ii) drivers of fuel and transport poverty; (iii) definition and measurement; (iv) policy interventions. Our review suggests that there are important conceptual and practical differences between transport and domestic energy consumption, with crucial consequences for how affordability problems amongst households are to be conceptualised and addressed. In a context where transport and energy exhibit two parallel policy worlds, the analysis in the paper and these conclusions reinforce how and why these differences matter. As we embark on an ever closer union between our domestic energy and transport energy systems the importance of these contradictions will become increasingly evident and problematic. This work contributes to the long-term debate about how best to manage these issues in a radical energy transition that properly pays attention to issues of equity and affordability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen has been identified as a potential gamechanger and ambitious national targets have been announced by many governments around the world. However, the lack of clear policy signals at the country level remains a barrier and significant cost reduction progress is unlikely to be made unless the issue is addressed. The paper aims to assess whether current UK energy policies support an economic case for low-carbon and competitive H2 production. A financial model is developed for hypothetical H2 projects based in the UK. Price assumptions are assigned to a specific set of policies in combination with the key technical considerations for H2 production and estimated return. The study concludes that H2 development featuring electrolysers or carbon capture and storage cannot rely on market forces alone to reach full commercialisation and competitiveness in the UK. While policies improve the economic case for H2 in some key areas, existing frameworks are not ambitious enough to advance the transition to low carbon options such as Blue and Green H2. Moreover, current policies do not sufficiently disincentivise investments in emission-intensive alternatives. • Explore potential for power-to-gas and steam methane reforming H2 with CCS in the UK. • Consider how current energy policy impacts the economics of both H2 production types. • Power-to-gas H2 can profit from security of supply policies and market-based support. • Blue H2 represents high-risk investment due to depleting domestic gas resources. • Current carbon price is too low to stimulate investment in low-carbon H2 projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bottom-up energy system models rely on cost optimization to produce energy scenarios that inform policy analyses, debates and decisions. This paper reviews the rationale for the use of cost optimization and questions whether cost-optimal scenarios are adequate proxies of the real-world energy transition. Evidence from ex-post modeling shows that cost optimization does not approximate the real-world UK electricity system transition in 1990–2014. The deviation in cumulative total system costs from the cost-optimal scenario in 1990–2014 is equal to 9–23% under various technology, cost, demand, and discount rate assumptions. In fact, cost-optimal scenarios are shown to gloss over a large share of uncertainty that arises due to deviations from cost optimality. Exploration of large numbers of near-optimal scenarios under parametric uncertainty can give indication of the bounds or envelope of predictability of the real-world transition. Concrete suggestions are then made how to improve bottom-up energy system models to better deal with the vast uncertainty around the future energy transition. The paper closes with a reflective discussion on the tension between predictive and exploratory use of energy system models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a systematic review of academic literature and policy papers since 2008 is undertaken with an aim of identifying the prevalent energy systems models and tools in the UK. A list of all referenced models is presented and the literature is analysed with regards sectoral coverage and technological inclusion, as well as mathematical structure of models. The paper compares available models using an appropriate classification schema, the introduction of which is aimed at making the model landscape more accessible and perspicuous, thereby enhancing the diversity of models within use. The distinct classification presented in this paper comprises three sections, which specify the model purpose and structure, technological detail and mathematical approach. The schema is not designed to be comprehensive, but rather to be a broad classification with pertinent level of information required to differentiate between models. As an example, the UK model landscape is considered and 22 models are classified in three tables, as per the proposed schema. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

UK Energy policy is focused on the challenges posed by energy security and climate change, however, efforts to develop a low-carbon economy have overlooked tidal energy a vast and unexploited worldwide resource. Since 1981, UK tidal lagoon schemes have been recommended as an economically and environmentally attractive alternative to tidal barrages. More recently, two proposals for tidal lagoons in Swansea Bay have emerged and there have been several reports documenting the potential to harness significant tidal energy from Swansea Bay using a tidal lagoon. This paper assists in determining a realistic approximation of the energy generation potential in Swansea Bay, a numerical estimation is obtained from a zero dimension, 0D, ‘backwards difference’ computational model, utilising the latest turbine data available and high-resolution bathymetric data. This paper models the behaviour of the tidal lagoon in dual mode generation, in line with the above proposals. The results of model testing using a variety of fixed and variable parameters are displayed. The ebb mode model with provision for pumping at high tide is then explored further by carrying out optimisations of the starting head, number of turbines and turbine diameter in order to determine the maximum annual energy output from the tidal lagoon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In UK energy policy, community-led energy initiatives are increasingly being imbued with transformative power to facilitate low carbon transitions. The ways that such expectations for communities are manifesting in practice remains, however, relatively poorly understood. In particular, key conceptual developments in unpacking what constitutes ‘community’ that highlight the significance of ‘place’ along with important characteristics, such as shared visions, collective social action, and resilience, have yet to be comprehensively explored in the context of community-led energy initiatives. This paper uses an interpretive stance to engage with these conceptual ideas about community and provides insights into the nature of community and its meaning for developing energy-related initiatives and realising the wider goals of energy policy. The paper draws on data from in-depth qualitative, longitudinal interviews undertaken in two residential communities and one purely workplace-based community, which are engaged in community energy initiatives. We argue that there are difficulties and ambiguities in creating shared visions, achieving social action, and developing resilience that are related to the specificities of community in place, but that all three characteristics are likely to be important for the making of sustainable places. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The UK's and Germany's coal phase-out pathways diverge in timing and measures. • Different powers of actor groups contribute to diverging trends in UK and Germany. • Influential German coal corporations and unions slow down coal's decline. • Energy security concerns, domestic mining and economic dependence create resistance. • Reducing the influence incumbents have on policy making might enable coal phase-out. Political decisions and trends regarding coal use for electricity generation developed differently in the UK and Germany, despite being subject to relatively similar climate protection targets and general political and economic conditions. The UK agreed on a coal phase-out by 2024. In Germany, a law schedules a coal phase-out by 2038 at the latest. This paper investigates reasons for the different developments and aims to identify main hurdles and drivers of coal phase-outs by using the Triple Embeddedness Framework. The comparative case study approach reveals that policy outcomes regarding coal consumption are deeply influenced by several actor groups, namely, coal companies, unions, environmental NGOs, and the government. The most discussed aspects of a coal phase-out in both countries are energy security concerns, whether coal is mined domestically, (regional) economic dependence, as well as the relative power of actors with vested interests in coal consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK is moving into a new phase of energy governance which is characterised by significant demand for new investment to meet long term climate policy objectives and to address shorter term energy security challenges. This paper examines how contributions from the socio-technical systems approach can be operationalised to address the policy and societal challenge of large scale investments in low carbon energy infrastructure. Research on socio-technical transitions explores the dynamics of long term structural change in capital intensive systems such as energy, housing and water supply, seeking to redirect them towards more sustainable long term trajectories. Focusing on the UK electricity generation sector, the paper expands on three key low carbon investment challenges where socio-technical research can provide useful insights – (1) understanding long term uncertainty and investment risks; (2) avoiding technological lock-in; and (3) accelerating the diffusion of low carbon finance ‘niches’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Demand-side management (DSM) refers to actions undertaken on the demand side of energy metres. A broad definition of DSM is proposed to include current policy objectives for emissions reduction, energy security and affordability, and encompasses energy efficiency, demand response, and on-site back-up generation and storage. The paper reviews the concept of DSM, outlines the historical impacts of DSM globally since the energy crises of the 1970s, analyses UK DSM policy, and examines the influence of EU Directives on UK DSM policy, as the country is currently deciding on how to include the demand-side in its Electricity Market Reform proposals and wider energy policy. Much of the focus of previous research has been on DSM technological trials and modelling studies rather than DSM policy and the paper contributes to filling this gap. Policy recommendations for the UK context are discussed, and it is clear that the success of DSM policies is determined primarily by regulatory support and utility financial incentives. It is important that policy clarity is provided and that current and new policies do not overlap. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy system scenarios and modelling exercises may under-represent the learning potential of emerging technologies such as marine energy. The research described here was devised to represent this potential, and thereby explore the possible role of marine energy in future energy systems. The paper describes a scenario for the accelerated development of marine energy technology, and the incorporation of this scenario into wider scenarios of UK energy system decarbonisation from now to 2050. The scenarios suggest that the accelerated development of marine energy could contribute significantly to the decarbonisation of energy supply in the UK, especially over the medium to long term. However, this is predicated on sustained innovation, learning and cost reduction over time. Encouragingly, a number of recently established policy support programmes are now beginning to stimulate the development of marine energy in Scotland, the UK and beyond. As the paper discusses, building on these initiatives, and ‘realising’ the accelerated development of marine energy, present a number of challenges, and will increasingly require international efforts. However, the potential rewards are very substantial. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Thermal energy loss in the process industry is a significant issue due to the high temperatures and multiple heat intensive processes involved. High-grade thermal energy is typically recovered within processes. However, lower grade heat is often rejected to the environment. The benefits of capturing and utilising low grade thermal energy are highly dependent on the qualities and properties of the heat in the waste streams. The temperature of the low grade heat stream is the most important parameter, as the effective use of the residual heat or the efficiency of energy recovery from the low grade heat sources will mainly depend on the temperature difference between the source and a suitable sink, e.g. another process or space heating/cooling. In general, the temperatures of these waste heat sources are too low to produce electricity and direct heat use will depend on whether potential user can be found. This paper presents past and current drivers for heat recovery studies. High and low grade heat sources are defined according to the viability of recovery within the processes. Firstly, high grade heat capture within the processes is reviewed. Then, the focus is on the potential for low grade heat capture outside of the original plant. The paper addresses the potential for low grade heat recovery with regard to new incentives and technological advances. Finally, different aspects which influence the decision making for low grade heat recovery in the process industry are discussed. It is concluded that organisational, financial and economic barriers might be overcome and benefits from a holistic vision could be gained with stronger governmental policy and regulation incentives. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Examination of policy debates associated with the UK smart meter rollout, making use of the sociology of expectation literature. • Content analysis of policy documents associated with the smart meter rollout over a 16-year period. • Even though the rollout has been highly contested, smart meter have maintained high policy relevance over time. • Expectations associated with smart meters haven been broadened out and safeguarded through connecting them to change energy policy goals. Socio-technical futures and associated expectations are acknowledged to play a crucial role in generating momentum for many science and technology innovations. Past research has mainly concentrated on studying the role of expectations within the early developments of innovations, formulated by technological developers and scientists, rather than looking at their role within policymaking. More recent work has started to address this gap, investigating the interrelations between expectations, the governance of innovations and policymaking. This paper examines the governance through expectations as formulated in policy documents and associated with the United Kingdom smart meter rollout over a 16-year period – between the policy consultation stage (2000–2008) and its more recent policy design stage (2009–2016). In doing so, it aims to contribute to the literatures on socio-technical futures, the sociology of expectations and smart meters by developing an understanding of how smart meters have been associated with a wider context of changing expectations within policy debates over time, and how policy has articulated, adjusted and attempted to stabilise expectations, whilst dealing with increasing scrutinisations of the rollout. We show that, even though the rollout has been highly contested, smart meters have maintained high policy relevance. This has been possible partly because expectations associated with smart meters have been broadened out and safeguarded by continually connecting them to the changing energy policy goals. Thus, smart meters and their future promises have been actively 'enacted'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Netherlands is both heavily dependent on the success of carbon capture and storage (CCS) and renewable electricity for its decarbonisation policy. The same holds for the EU and some of its Member States like the United Kingdom. This paper discusses several scenarios for the Netherlands within the context of a liberalised and a more and more connected energy market in Northwest-Europe. The research reported here shows that CCS on new coal fired power plants does not pose a threat to the increase in the electricity production by large quantities of wind energy in the electricity system, and vice versa. For renewable energy, several additional policies are in place mainly in the form of financial support as long as these renewable options are not yet profitable. For CCS, financial support is only granted now for a selection of the first demonstration projects now planned in the EU. It is not yet clear if large scale CCS and high shares of wind energy can be incorporated in a balanced way in the electricity system. This paper shows that from a technical and economic point of view, there is room for both, and under which conditions such a two fold growth will be feasible. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Recently, in the United Kingdom, two issues have dominated the energy policy agenda: effective climate change mitigation and energy security. Whilst evolving government policy has led to government support for new build nuclear power as part of the nation''s future energy mix, limited attention has been devoted to examining how arguments were constructed to lead ‘naturally’ to nuclear new build as an option for addressing these two issues. Using Critical Discourse Analysis this paper analyses the struggles within the climate change mitigation and energy security discourses in generating and/or replacing meanings. In particular, it examines how construction of the dominant (hegemonic) discourses led ‘naturally’ to the necessity of new build nuclear power. This paper draws upon 24 stakeholder interviews to examine the hegemonic and counter-hegemonic discourses. It outlines how climate change and energy security were perceived as motivators for energy policy; it shows how the combination of the dominant construction of climate change as an environmental issue and the construction of energy security as a ‘gas gap’ lent weight to the argument for nuclear new build. Struggling against these discourses is a counter-hegemonic discourse centred around climate change as a symptom of unsustainability and energy security as a lack of energy diversity. The latter, rather than ‘naturally’ proposing an urgent need for nuclear new build, lead to the argument for readdressing the focus of, and use of resources by, society – reducing energy demand and increasing energy supply diversity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper provides details of the context and background to UK policies for CCS, and critically examines the national strategy and detailed initiatives to date. Interviews with key players inform the analysis. Climate and energy security goals are first set out, and arguments about the place of coal within them discussed. Then the paper turns to the evolution of the debate about CCS in UK policy circles, and rationales for public support. Lastly the paper analyses some of the political, economic and technical issues that have emerged as CCS became more prominent in UK energy strategies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the past decade or so, the British government policy support for renewable energy (RE) has been at the core of the rapid growth of bioenergy in the UK rather than genuine market forces. Policy support has been through various instruments which are discussed in this paper, with particular attention given to co-firing and transport fuels. The UK energy sector remains dominated by large fossil fuels power plants and this does not facilitate the introduction of RE. One exception is co-firing which in 2005 generated 2.5TWh. Another area of considerable potential and interest is the use of biofuels (biodiesel and bioethanol) for transport, although current contribution remains still very small (0.18% of total fuel sales in 2005). In 2005, the UK used 1.4 million tonnes of biomass in co-firing, mostly imported, while considerable potential exists for further expansion should policy incentives continue. It is also generally accepted that the UK will have to rely largely on imports if it is to fulfil its 5% minimum biofuel blends agreed for 2010 and 10% in 2015. Both sectors present excellent opportunities for international bioenergy trade, despite the domestic production potential, as demonstrated in this paper. In addition, the forthcoming introduction of carbon and sustainability reporting should incentivise greater reporting along the supply chain, encouraging trade in the most sustainable biofuels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In 2004, the UK''s aviation industry emitted an estimated 9.8MtC; a figure that, without direct intervention, is projected to rise to 16–21MtC by 2030 according to the UK Government. As the UK''s 60% carbon-reduction target approaches, so aviation is likely to become a dominant carbon-emitting sector. This paper calculates the proportion of carbon emissions resulting from the Government''s projected aviation growth in relation to a contracting carbon budget. It concludes that the Government must urgently address today''s very high levels of growth in emissions within the industry, and ensure future growth can be reconciled with the Government''s own carbon targets. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The paper addresses both historical and current UK policy relating to renewable energy. It discusses the stated aims of policy, and discusses to what extent policy has addressed these aims, and the level of success enjoyed with respect to each goal. The paper also addresses the context in which UK policy has developed, and the effects this has had on both the creation and employment of that policy. Finally, it comments on the likely future direction of policy in the UK. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents an exploratory analysis of microgeneration installer businesses in the UK during a period of intense change in policies supporting microgeneration from 2010 to 2012. The research examines the influence of installer businesses on rates of uptake and standards of installation, and the interplay between business practices and the policy environment. The research developed new detailed datasets through a nationwide survey, to which 388 installers responded, and follow-up interviews with 22 installers. Focusing on solar photovoltaics and air source heat pumps installed in households, the results show the fundamental dependence of installer businesses on government financial incentives and on the quality assurance scheme in operation. Market confidence was compromised by the sharp reduction in the Feed-In Tariff (FIT) for residential solar PV in 2012 and long delays to the equivalent Renewable Heat Incentive for residential installations. Nevertheless, more modest FIT levels have reduced the risk of sub-optimal installations and inappropriate specification of microgeneration systems. The findings underline the need for consistent policy to allow installer businesses and their supply chains to develop and mature, and thus facilitate commercial deployment of microgeneration of high quality, raise its competiveness with incumbent forms of energy supply and contribute to decarbonisation goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency has become a primary energy policy goal in Europe and many countries and has conditioned the policies towards energy-intensive sectors such as road freight transport. However, energy efficiency improvements can lead to changes in the demand for energy services that offset some of the achieved energy savings in the form of rebound effects. Consequently, forecasts of energy savings can be overstated. This paper analyses the energy efficiency and rebound effects for road freight transport in 15 European countries during the 1992–2012 period. We use a recent methodology to estimate an energy demand function using a stochastic frontier analysis approach and examine the influence of key features of rebound effect in the road freight transport sector. We obtain, on average, a fuel efficiency of 89% and a rebound effect of 4%. Our results indicate that the achieved energy efficiencies are retained to a large extent. We also find, among other results, that the rebound effect is higher in countries with higher fuel efficiency and better quality of logistics. Finally, a simulation analysis shows significant environmental externalities costs even in countries with lower rebound effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is currently a lack of data recording the carbon and emissions inventory at household level. This paper presents a multi-disciplinary, bottom-up approach for estimation and analysis of the carbon emissions, and the organic carbon (OC) stored in gardens, using a sample of 575 households across a UK city. The annual emission of carbon dioxide emissions from energy used in the homes was measured, personal transport emissions were assessed through a household survey and OC stores estimated from soil sampling and vegetation surveys. The results showed that overall carbon patterns were skewed with highest emitting third of the households being responsible for more than 50% of the emissions and around 50% of garden OC storage. There was diversity in the relative contribution that gas, electricity and personal transport made to each household’s total and different patterns were observed for high, medium and low emitting households. Targeting households with high carbon emissions from one source would not reliably identify them as high emitters overall. While carbon emissions could not be offset by growing trees in gardens, there were considerable amounts of stored OC in gardens which ought to be protected. Exploratory analysis of the multiple drivers of emissions was conducted using a combination of primary and secondary data. These findings will be relevant in devising effective policy instruments for combatting city scale green-house gas emissions from domestic end-use energy demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A techno-economic analysis is undertaken to assess hybrid PV/solar-thermal (PVT) systems for distributed electricity and hot-water provision in a typical house in London, UK. In earlier work (Herrando et al., 2014), a system model based on a PVT collector with water as the cooling medium (PVT/w) was used to estimate average year-long system performance. The results showed that for low solar irradiance levels and low ambient temperatures, such as those associated with the UK climate, a higher coverage of total household energy demands and higher CO 2 emission savings can be achieved by the complete coverage of the solar collector with PV and a relatively low collector cooling flow-rate. Such a PVT/w system demonstrated an annual electricity generation of 2.3 MW h, or a 51% coverage of the household’s electrical demand (compared to an equivalent PV-only value of 49%), plus a significant annual water heating potential of to 1.0 MW h, or a 36% coverage of the hot-water demand. In addition, this system allowed for a reduction in CO 2 emissions amounting to 16.0 tonnes over a life-time of 20 years due to the reduction in electrical power drawn from the grid and gas taken from the mains for water heating, and a 14-tonne corresponding displacement of primary fossil-fuel consumption. Both the emissions and fossil-fuel consumption reductions are significantly larger (by 36% and 18%, respectively) than those achieved by an equivalent PV-only system with the same peak rating/installed capacity. The present paper proceeds further, by considering the economic aspects of PVT technology, based on which invaluable policy-related conclusions can be drawn concerning the incentives that would need to be in place to accelerate the widespread uptake of such systems. It is found that, with an electricity-only Feed-In Tariff (FIT) support rate at 43.3 p/kW h over 20 years, the system cost estimates of optimised PVT/w systems have an 11.2-year discounted payback period (PV-only: 6.8 years). The role and impact of heat-based incentives is also studied. The implementation of a domestic Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) at a rate of 8.5 p/kW h in quarterly payments leads to a payback reduction of about 1 year. If this incentive is given as a one-off voucher at the beginning of the system’s lifetime, the payback is reduced by about 2 years. With a RHI rate of 20 p/kW h (about half of the FIT rate) PVT technology would have approximately the same payback as PV. It is concluded that, if primary energy (currently dominated by fossil fuels) and CO 2 emission minimisation are important goals of national energy policy, PVT systems offer a significantly improved proposition over equivalent PV-only systems, but at an elevated cost. This is in need of careful reflection when developing relevant policy and considering technology incentivation. Currently, although heat outweighs electricity consumption by a factor of about 4 (by energy unit) in the UK domestic sector, the support landscape has strongly favoured electrical microgeneration, being inclined in favour of PV technology, which has been experiencing a well-documented exponential growth over recent decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The electricity infrastructure in many developed countries requires significant investment to meet ambitious carbon emissions reduction targets, and to bridge the gap between future supply and demand. Perennial energy crops have the potential to deliver electricity generation capacity while reducing carbon emissions, leading to polices supporting the adoption of these crops. In the UK, for example, support has been in place over the past decade, although uptake and the market development have so far been relatively modest. This paper combines biophysical and socio-economic process representations within an agent-based model (ABM), to offer insights into the dynamics of the development of the perennial energy crop market. Against a changing policy landscape, several potential policy scenarios are developed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the market in providing a source of low carbon renewable electricity, and to achieve carbon emissions abatement. The results demonstrate the key role of both energy and agricultural policies in stimulating the rate and level of uptake; consequently influencing the cost-effectiveness of these measures. The UK example shows that energy crops have the potential to deliver significant emissions abatement (up to 24 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent year −1 , 4% of 2013 UK total emissions), and renewable electricity (up to 29 TWh year −1 , 8% of UK electricity or 3% of primary energy demand), but a holistic assessment of related policies is needed to ensure that support is cost-effective. However, recent policy developments suggest that domestically grown perennial energy crops will only play a niche role (<0.2%) of the UK energy balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction and subsequent analysis of scenarios using energy systems models is an essential tool in energy policy making. This paper presents two descriptive scenarios for the development of the UK energy system to 2050, using four subsequent decadal time-slices. The two scenarios, K_Scenario and Z_Scenario, were modelled with the use of the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) 2050 Pathways Calculator. K_Scenario is a scenario in which the use fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage (CCS) are prominent in the power sector, while Z_Scenario focuses on the development of renewables with energy storage and nuclear power. Both scenarios seek to achieve the UK's legally binding target of an 80% reduction in GHG emissions from 1990 levels by 2050. Abatement is achieved through numerous developments in each of the scenarios, including the development and use of shale gas, hydrogen, additional wind and solar deployment, the expansion of bioenergy and use of carbon capture and storage (CCS). These developments must be driven by policies designed to pursue dramatic decarbonisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a novel policy assessment approach for sustainable transitions using insights from the multilevel perspective (MLP). An analysis of current German and UK policies for sustainable transport is conducted to illustrate its application. For both cases a potential transition pathway, that can satisfy environmental protection and industrial competitiveness goals, is derived from archetypal transition pathways. These are then put in relation to current policies, discussing whether these measures support these pathways. In the UK case, where emission reduction goals and industrial development are pursued together, current policies of promoting the diffusion of electric vehicles as well as industrial niches are supporting the emergence of a reconfiguration pathway. Replacing foreign suppliers, the local automotive industry shall become a significant part of the future regime. In contrast to that, Germany focuses on a careful transformation and conservation of its automotive industry where none of the current actors is left behind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK electricity system is likely to face dramatic technical and institutional changes in the near future. Current UK energy policy focuses on the need for a clean, affordable and secure energy supply. Decentralisation of the electricity system is recognised as one means of achieving efficient and renewable energy provision, as well as addressing concerns over ageing electricity infrastructure and capacity constraints. In this paper we provide a critical literature review of the economics of increased penetration of distributed energy generation. We find that there exists a large volume of research considering the financial viability of individual distributed generation technologies (and we are necessarily selective in our review of these studies, given the wide variety of technologies that the definition of distributed generation encompasses). However, there are few studies that focus on the pure economics of individual or groups of distributed energy generators, and even fewer still based on the economy-wide aspects of distributed generation. In view of this gap in the literature, we provide suggestions for future research which are likely to be necessary in order adequately to inform public policy on distributed generation and its role in the future of UK energy supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Hydrogen technologies and infrastructures might play a significant role in meeting ambitious climate and energy policy goals of the UK Government. Nonetheless, studies on hydrogen are either limited in scope in that they do not take into account the relationships with the wider energy system drivers and constraints or do not consider how a hydrogen network might develop geographically. This paper presents a framework where a spatially explicit hydrogen module is embedded in the UK MARKAL Energy System model to explore energy system trade-offs for the production, delivery and use of hydrogen at the sub-national level. A set of illustrative scenarios highlight the competitiveness of hydrogen related infrastructures and technologies as well as imported liquid hydrogen against a stringent emissions reduction target; the effect of emissions reduction trajectory on the development of hydrogen network; the intense resource competition between low carbon hydrogen production and electricity generation, and the importance of economies of scale in hydrogen supply and distribution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Historic dwellings in the UK make up to 20% of all homes. In the Georgian city of Bath this rises to 30%. These buildings are amongst the most poorly performing part of the English housing stock in energy use terms, with the lowest SAP rating and highest average annual CO2 emissions. The legal aim to reduce CO2 emissions of 80% by 2050 will involve all existing dwellings, including historic buildings. The degree to which proposals to retrofit the UK housing stock can reduce emissions depends on how much energy they currently use, what it is used for and how much CO2 they emit. This paper establishes a benchmark of energy use and CO2 emissions for historic dwellings in Bath. This permits comparison of their energy performance against other parts of the housing stock and will facilitate evaluation of potential retrofit adaptations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Despite increasingly stringent building energy regulations worldwide, non-compliance exists in practice. This paper examines the profile of compliance with building energy regulations for new-build dwellings. In total 404 new-build dwellings completed in the UK from 2006 to 2009 were investigated. Only a third of these dwellings were evidenced as being compliant with Building Regulations Part L (England and Wales). Such low compliance casts a serious concern over the achievability of the UK Government''s target for all new-build homes to be ‘zero carbon’ from 2016. Clearly evidenced was a lack of knowledge of Part L and its compliance requirements among the supply and building control sides of new-build dwellings. The results also indicate that the compliance profile was influenced by factors including Standard Assessment Procedure (UK Government''s methodology for energy efficiency) calculation submissions, learning and experience of builders and building controls with Part L, use of Part L1A checklist, the introduction of energy performance certificate (EPC), build method, dwelling type, and project size. Better compliance was associated with flats over houses and timber frame over masonry. The use of EPC and Part L1A checklist should be encouraged. Key to addressing the lack of compliance with building energy regulations is training. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: District heating infrastructure could contribute to the UK''s energy policy goals of decarbonisation, renewable energy deployment, tackling fuel poverty and ensuring energy security. However, while a number of schemes have been developed over the last decade, deployment of the technology remains limited. This paper adopts a Technological Innovation Systems framework to ask what the principal challenges are to significantly scaling up the deployment of DH in the UK. While district heating networks are inherently local infrastructures, they are positioned in regulatory and market contexts organised at larger spatial scales, making geography an important factor and coordination across spatial scales an important policy area for accelerated deployment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As the debate on policy responses to climate change gathers pace, there has been an increasing focus on tools to model national scale energy use and emission characteristics of UK dwellings. This paper reviews some existing models and highlights limitations of their common underlying methodologies. We argue that a radically different, integrated, approach is required to tackle these challenges and ensure that the modelling remain robust and able to meet future demands. We suggest that Agent Based Modelling (ABM) is a suitable candidate modelling paradigm to achieve an integrated modelling framework. We also present DECarb-ABM (an ABM based implementation of an existing model, DECarb) with many of the desired properties of such an integrated framework. The new model is validated against both the existing model and historical data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports on the current UK scenario of islanded operation of active distribution networks with renewable distributed generators (RDGs). Different surveys indicate that the present scenario does not economically justify islanding operation of active distribution networks with RDGs. Anti-islanding protection schemes currently enforce the renewable distributed generators (RDGs) to disconnect immediately and stop generation for grid faults through loss of grid (LOG) protection system. This greatly reduces the benefits of RDG deployment. With rising RDG penetration, much benefit would be lost if the RDGs are not allowed to island only due to conventional operational requirement of utilities. For preventing disconnection of RDGs during LOG, several islanding operation, control and protection schemes are being developed. Technical studies clearly indicate the need to review parts of the ESQCR (Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations) for successful islanded operations. Commercial viability of islanding operation must be assessed in relation to enhancement of power quality, system reliability and supply of potential ancillary services through network support. Demonstration projects under Registered Power Zone and Technical Architecture Projects should be initiated to investigate the usefulness of DG islanding. However these efforts should be compounded with a realistic judgement of the associated technical and economic issues for the development of future power networks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper describes an innovative modelling approach focusing on linking spatial (GIS) modelling of hydrogen (H2) supply, demands and infrastructures, anchored within a economy-wide energy systems model (MARKAL). The UK government is legislating a groundbreaking climate change mitigation target for a 60% CO2 reduction by 2050, and has identified H2 infrastructures and technologies as potentially playing a major role, notably in the transport sector. An exploratory set of linked GIS–MARKAL model scenarios generate a range of nuanced insights including spatial matching of supply and demand for optimal zero-carbon H2 deployment, a crucial finding on successive clustering of demand centres to enable economies of scale in H2 supply and distribution, the competitiveness of imported liquid H2 and of liquid H2 distribution, and sectoral competition for coal with carbon sequestration between electricity and H2 production under economy-wide CO2 constraints. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Distributed energy storage is a solution for increasing self-consumption of variable renewable energy such as solar and wind energy at the end user site. Small-scale energy storage systems can be centrally coordinated by "aggregation" to offer different services to the grid, such as operational flexibility and peak shaving. This paper shows how centralized coordination vs. distributed operation of residential electricity storage (home batteries) could affect the savings of owners. A hybrid method is applied to model the operation of solar photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage for a typical UK householder, linked with a whole-system power system model to account for long-term energy transitions. Based on results, electricity consumers can accumulate greater savings under centralized coordination by between 4 and 8% when operating no technology, by 3-11% with electricity storage alone, by 2-5% with stand-alone solar PV, while 0-2% with PV-battery combined. Centralized coordination of home batteries offers more optimized electricity prices in the system, and as such, higher private savings to all consumers. However, consumers without onsite energy technologies benefit more than PV-battery owners. Therefore, based on system-level benefits of aggregation, the regulator should incentivize prosumers with PV-battery, who are able to balance their electricity supply-demand even without central coordination, to let their storage be controlled centrally. Possible revenues of storage owners from ancillary services as well as the cost of aggregation (e.g., transaction fees charged by aggregators) are not considered in this analysis. • Centralized coordination vs. distributed operation of residential solar PV-battery is discussed. • Centralized coordination offers greater savings to prosumers, especially, under time of use tariffs. • Value of home batteries is dependent on the need for flexibility in the energy system in long term. • Consumers without battery benefit from the impact of "storage coordination" on power prices, more than battery owners themselves. • Private benefits of storage aggregation drops by 20% if aggregated storage devices increase five-fold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The UK Climate Change Bill proposes to establish legally binding targets for a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050. This paper discusses the challenges posed by measuring progress towards this target. It takes as a premise that the conventional production-based accounting framework, enshrined in the UNFCCC emissions accounting guidelines, is inappropriate for this task because it fails to account for the carbon ‘traded’ across the UK national boundary. Accordingly, it sets out a consumption-based accounting framework – using a two-region Environmental Input–Output (EIO) model – which could in principle measure progress in reducing the emissions attributable to final consumers in the UK. It illustrates the use of this framework to measure the reduction in carbon dioxide achieved by the UK between 1990 (the Kyoto base year) and the year 2004 and compares this against the production perspective. The results indicate that any progress towards the UK''s carbon reduction targets (visible under a production perspective) disappears completely when viewed from a consumption perspective. But the robustness of this conclusion depends critically on the accuracy of underlying economic and environmental datasets as well as specific assumptions concerning imports. By analysing the consistency of UK Input–Output data, we conclude that EIO is still some way from being able to answer the critical question of the carbon trade balance for the UK. In these circumstances, measuring real progress towards carbon reduction in the UK remains elusive. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The UK is witnessing a new line in political debate around new nuclear energy generation as one potential feature of future energy policy, specifically for contributing to climate change mitigation alongside energy security. Little is known about how ordinary citizens might be responding to this reframing. This paper reports the results from a major British survey (n=1491) undertaken in the autumn of 2005. The consistent message is that while higher proportions of the British public are prepared to accept nuclear power if they believe it contributes to climate change mitigation, this is a highly conditional view, with very few actively preferring this over renewable sources given the choice. People see both climate change and nuclear power as problematic in terms of risks and express only a ‘reluctant acceptance’ of nuclear power as a ‘solution’ to climate change. The combined data from this survey can also be interpreted as an indication of the complexity surrounding beliefs about energy futures and the difficulty of undertaking simplistic risk–risk tradeoffs within any single framing of the issues; such as nuclear energy versus climate change. The results also indicate that it would be unwise, in the UK as elsewhere, to simplistically assume that there exists any single or stable public ‘opinion’ on such complex matters. We conclude with a discussion of the role and implications of the survey evidence for the policy process. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The purpose of this paper is to determine the effect of different carbon tax rates on the power generation composition of Britain. This was accomplished via a regional, geospatial model, accounting for regional loads, transmission losses and generators of Britain's current energy infrastructure. This regional model is also compared to a pure dispatch, nationally aggregated model which considers only costs on the generator side inclusive of the carbon tax, thus allowing the effect of including geospatial conditions to be identified. The effect of this tax (in both the geospatial and nationally aggregated cases) is a transition from coal to combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) generated power to fulfil demand unmet by nuclear or renewable sources. The more sophisticated regional model, however, differs from the nationally aggregated case by having a significantly larger window of carbon tax rates over which this coal to CCGT transition occurs. Due regional differences in demand and installed capacity technology types it is determined that more than 50% of this transition occurs prior to CCGT becoming more economical than coal from a pure dispatch (nationally aggregated) perspective. Primarily due to CCGT generators typically being closer to larger southern loads than northern coal, transmission losses and the economic disincentive of a carbon tax combine in encouraging this transition. The transition window, therefore, is not only broadened by the consideration of geospatial effects, but furthermore, this broadening significantly and disproportionately occurs by decreasing the lower bound of this transition window. These findings validate the significance of utilising a geospatial model, particularly of regional resolution. They further identify the deployment of current energy infrastructure in Britain under differing carbon tax regimes and by extension, the transition window (found to be from coal to CCGT) an increasing carbon tax rate would create. These results bear not only significance in understanding the UK's currently incrementing (top-up) carbon tax rate, but also shed light on future policies due to the UK's leaving of the EU's Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS), with immediate plans to continue with a domestic carbon tax and trading scheme. Thus, these results hold importance in the understanding the effect of carbon taxation on existing infrastructure, energy modelling and national policy in the UK. [Display omitted] • OPF modelling performed at national and regional levels. • Effect of different carbon tax rates on generator composition determined. • Transmission losses accelerate coal to gas transition due to generator placement. • Differences in regional generator compositions and loads found to be significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the impacts of energy policies for supporting low-carbon infrastructure on the economic and financial performance of energy storage when coupled with a generator. The study sets in the UK context and the unit of analysis is the generator connected with energy storage. An analytical method is derived to assess the impact of policy schemes for low-carbon infrastructure on energy storage. The case study of energy storage systems coupled with a Small Modular nuclear Reactor (SMR) is quantitatively investigated in three scenarios: 1. SMR-only (the baseline); 2. SMR with thermal energy storage; and 3. SMR with Lithium-ion battery. For the strike price at 100 £/MWh, the net present value for scenarios 2 and 3 reduces from 562 M£ to 379 M£ and from 376 M£ to -1144 M£, respectively, when the energy storage capacity increases from 100 MWh to 1 GWh. As the net present value reduces with increased energy storage capacity (when coupled with generation), this work shows that low-carbon incentives are, unintentionally, barriers to the development of energy storage due to: (A) current generator incentives give a favourable return on investment and energy storage would diminish it; (B) energy storage cannot participate in generator only incentives. • There is a growing need to deploy energy storage infrastructures. • There is no incentive scheme specifically developed for energy storage. • Low-carbon power incentive schemes can unintendedly limit energy storage deployment. • The unintended effect is analysed analytically and numerically. • Policy recommendations are suggested to address this critical issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities across the globe recognise their role in climate mitigation and are acting to reduce carbon emissions. Knowing whether cities set ambitious climate and energy targets is critical for determining their contribution towards the global 1.5 °C target, partly because it helps to identify areas where further action is necessary. This paper presents a comparative analysis of the mitigation targets of 327 European cities, as declared in their local climate plans. The sample encompasses over 25% of the EU population and includes cities of all sizes across all Member States, plus the UK. The study analyses whether the type of plan, city size, membership of climate networks, and its regional location are associated with different levels of mitigation ambition. Results reveal that 78% of the cities have a GHG emissions reduction target. However, with an average target of 47%, European cities are not on track to reach the Paris Agreement: they need to roughly double their ambitions and efforts. Some cities are ambitious, e.g. 25% of our sample (81) aim to reach carbon neutrality, with the earliest target date being 2020.90% of these cities are members of the Climate Alliance and 75% of the Covenant of Mayors. City size is the strongest predictor for carbon neutrality, whilst climate network(s) membership, combining adaptation and mitigation into a single strategy, and local motivation also play a role. The methods, data, results and analysis of this study can serve as a reference and baseline for tracking climate mitigation ambitions across European and global cities. • 78% of cities have a mitigation plan with targets (avg. 47% GHG reduction). • Only 25% of cities strive for carbon neutrality, most by 2050, avg. By 2045. • 90% of cities striving for carbon neutrality are members of a climate network. • Ambition is driven by city size, climate networks, M-A combination, local motivation. • European cities must double their ambitions to meet the aims set by the Paris Agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]