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We use pooled US General Social Survey (GSS, 1972–2016) data to study the effect of urbanism on misanthropy (distrust and dislike of humankind). Evolution (small group living), homophily or ingroup preference, and classic urban sociological theory suggest that misanthropy should develop in the most dense and heterogeneous places, such as large cities. Our results mostly agree: misanthropy is highest in cities with a population larger than several hundred thousand people, and the effect size of urbanicity is about half of that of income. Yet, the rural advantage is disappearing—from 1990 to 2010, misanthropy has increased fastest in the smallest places (<10k). One possible reason is that smaller places have been left behind, and rural resentment has increased. This is only the second quantitative study on the urbanicity-misanthropy nexus and more research is needed. Results may not be generalized outside of the US. • We study the effect of urbanicity on misanthropy (distrust and dislike of humankind). • Large cities (>250k) vs. small places (<10k) (but not the countryside) are more misanthropic. • Misanthropy in large cities (>250k) declined over 2000-2010, and in small places (<10k) increased steeply over 1990-2010. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides new evidence to the urban malaise (unhappiness) hypothesis. A new key finding is added: Urban upbringing is associated with lower happiness levels later in life. This outcome is above and beyond the effect associated with living currently in a city. Strikingly, the negative effect of urbanicity in one's youth is about as strong statistically, and practically (effect size), as the effect of urbanicity given one's current place of residence. In addition, our findings show that there may be a happiness benefit to growing up on a farm. The present study is inspired by Lederbogen et al. (2011) who showed that growing up in a city has a negative lasting effect in a person's life. We also find interactive effects: people who grew up in larger areas but live in smaller areas have lower levels of happiness than those who grew up in smaller areas and continue to live there. There is also an interactive effect with age: older people are happier if they grew up on a farm. These results aim to stimulate discussion by challenging the mainstream pro-urban view that people are happier in cities. This study is based on U.S. data, thus our results may not generalize to other countries or historical contexts. • Using the General Social Survey (GSS) dataset from 1972 to 2016, we provide new evidence to the urban malaise hypothesis. • Urban upbringing results in lower happiness levels later in life. • This effect is above and beyond the unhappiness associated with living currently in a city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]