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• Accounting methods of agricultural methane are summarized. • Influencing factors of emission sources from agricultural sources were analyzed. • Mitigation strategies based on accounting and actual situation are proposed. Methane is one of the major greenhouse gases (GHGs) and agriculture is recognized as its primary emitter. Methane accounting is a prerequisite for developing effective agriculture mitigation strategies. In this review, methane accounting methods and research status for various agricultural emission source including rice fields, animal enteric fermentation and livestock and poultry manure management were overview, and the influencing factors of each emission source were analyzed and discussed. At the same time, it analyzes the different research efforts involving agricultural methane accounting and makes recommendations based on the actual situation. Finally, mitigation strategies based on accounting results and actual situation are proposed. This review aims to provide basic data and reference for agriculture-oriented countries and regions to actively participate in climate action and carry out effective methane emission mitigation. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accessible, reliable and diverse sources of climate information are needed to inform climate change adaptation at all levels of society, particularly for vulnerable sectors such as smallholder farming. Globally, many smallholder farmers use Indigenous knowledge (IK) and local knowledge (LK) to forecast weather and climate; however, less is known about how the use of these forecasts connects to decisions and actions for reducing climate risks. We examined the role of IK and LK in seasonal forecasting and the broader climate adaptation decision-making of smallholder farmers in Chiredzi, Zimbabwe. The data were collected from a sample of 100 smallholder farmers. Seventy-three of the 100 interviewed farmers used IK and LK weather and climate forecasts, and 32% relied solely on IK and LK forecasts for climate adaptation decision-making. Observations of cuckoo birds, leaf-sprouting of Mopane trees, high summer temperatures, and Nimbus clouds are the main indicators used for IK and LK forecasts. The use of IK and LK climate forecasts was significantly positively associated with increasing farmer age and farmland size. Farmers using IK and LK forecasts implemented, on average, triple the number of adaptation measures compared with farmers not using IK and LK. These findings demonstrate the widespread reliance of farmers on IK and LK for seasonal forecasts, and the strong positive link between the use of IK and LK and the implementation of climate adaptation actions. This positive association between IK and LK usage and the implementation of adaptation actions may be widespread in smallholder farming communities throughout Africa and globally. Recognition and inclusion of IK and LK in climate services is important to ensure their continued potential for enhancing climate change adaptation. • Indigenous (IK) and local knowledge (LK) underpin climate change adaptation. • Reliability, trust, and accessibility of climate forecasts affect season preparedness. • 32% of IK and LK users act on no other climate information source. • IK and LK users implement triple the number of adaptation actions. • Recognition, inclusion and preservation of IK and LK essential to adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture contributes to global climate change by producing 20–25% of greenhouse gases (GHGs). CO 2 is released from deforestation and land conversion, methane from rice paddy fields, and nitrous oxides from overfertilization. An increasing world population requires a change in the agro food systems, including a reduction in chemical fertilizers and pesticides as well as the production and access to food. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have created a global climate crisis which requires immediate interventions to mitigate the negative effects on all aspects of life on this planet. As current agriculture and land use contributes up to 25% of total GHG emissions, plant scientists take center stage in finding possible solutions for a transition to sustainable agriculture and land use. In this article, the PlantACT! (Plants for climate ACTion!) initiative of plant scientists lays out a road map of how and in which areas plant scientists can contribute to finding immediate, mid-term, and long-term solutions, and what changes are necessary to implement these solutions at the personal, institutional, and funding levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implementation of climate mitigation measures at the farm level is highly dependent on farmers' willingness to make adjustments to their farms. While many studies have identified various barriers to climate mitigation in agriculture – among them farmers' weak interest in climate – there has been less research focused on the different kinds of influences actually leading to the decisions and acts of implementing relevant measures. Hence, we undertook a qualitative investigation of eight Norwegian farms that have employed a range of such measures. Most importantly, our findings show that climate considerations are not an essential driver among farmers who have implemented relevant measures. Instead, climate mitigation measures are mainly perceived as, treated as, and appreciated for offering (farm-beneficial) functions other than climate change mitigation. Consequently, our study displays an opportunity for diffusion of technology and practices often believed to be curbed by the lack of climate-oriented farmers. Further, our findings point to a range of shared, favourable, contextual conditions (robust farm economy/economies of scale; sufficient time for farming; prospects for farm continuation; relevant subsidy schemes; beneficial climate and topography) enabling the implementation of climate mitigation measures on the involved farms. This reflects the reduced ability of farmers to act in climate-beneficial ways when these conditions are absent or exist with a negative sign. The mutual dependency between intrinsic drivers and enabling contextual conditions underlines the need for both research and development strategies that consider the entire picture. This would include targeting both critical enabling conditions for farmers and the message framing employed to promote climate-beneficial changes at the farm level. • Farmers' lack of climate interest is claimed to hinder mitigation actions. • Farmers implement climate-beneficial measures due to other farm-related benefits. • Implementation of measures depends on certain favourable contextual conditions. • Adapting climate-related subsidies and counselling to these realities seems useful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family farms go through cyclical stages of development and contraction as a result of the overlapping of business goals and generational changes. This 'farm family life-cycle' results in periods within which farm families are highly innovative and farmers willing to invest, and other periods where innovativeness and investment are highly unlikely. Within the climate change mitigation literature, innovativeness and willingness to invest have been identified as key drivers of adoption – yet the possible connection between farm family life-cycle and mitigation has yet to be explored. In this paper we address this issue through a survey of 465 farmers in Norway. We first defined life-cycle stages on the basis of theory and then employed a cluster analysis to deductively sort farmers into stages ('early-stage developers', 'commercial developers', 'commercial disengagers' and 'semi-retired withdrawers'). Testing these clusters against mitigation intention, and other climate change response data, we found significant differences across a range of measures and a progressive trend of declining mitigation intention throughout the life-cycle stages. We conclude that, while our evidence supports the existence of a relationship, additional research is required and, to facilitate this, suggest how future studies might further these investigations towards the goal of developing life-cycle stage related policies for agriculture. • Family farms go through life-cycle based periods of investment and innovation. • Innovation and investment willingness are also key drivers of farm climate mitigation. • Life-cycle stage can influence willingness to adopt of mitigation measures. • More research is required to understand the link between life-cycle and mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The assessment of soil health and the determination of carbon stability in soils are current challenges that have gained momentum through initiatives at national as well as international scales. However, inferring universally valid soil health parameters that are directly linked to carbon permanence remains challenging. Our aim was to evaluate the potential of simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) for an improved monitoring of soil health advances in the context of carbon farming strategies. For this purpose, an on-farm comparison of soil health in ten conservation agricultural systems with adjacent conventional farms was performed based on STA and thermal measures were related to key biological and physical indicators for monitoring soil functions. Using an autocorrelation-based approach, we identified independent thermal indicators, revealing that carbon farming efforts predominantly increased labile soil organic matter fractions in the range of 300–400 ° C , while thermally more recalcitrant fractions did not respond to farming system transformation. Similarly, most soil health indicators revealed highest correlation with temperature ranges of mass loss of labile organic matter fractions. The relation of STA with commonly used soil health indicators was highest for soil organic carbon (SOC, r = 0. 971) and total nitrogen (TN, r = 0. 981). However, also inference on microbial activity parameters such as dimethylsulfoxid reduction, microbial biomass carbon and substrate-induced respiration could be demonstrated with r > 0. 663. The results thus highlight key temperature ranges of organic matter stability for future soil monitoring tasks of climate change mitigation potentials of carbon farming and related advances in soil health. • We tested simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) as a tool for soil health assessment. • We did so by an on-farm comparison of conventional and conservation farming systems. • Improvements by conservation farming were mainly detected for labile C fractions. • Specific STA mass loss ranges correlated well with several soil health indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Higher model performance for granulometry than SOC% using seedbed spectra. • PLSR outperformed other algorithms for SOC% estimation, CR for granulometry. • Low contribution of seedbed spectra to the DSM of SOC% using environmental covariates. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is central to the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems, has climate mitigation potential and provides several benefits for soil health. Understanding the spatial distribution of SOC can help formulate sustainable soil management practices. Digital soil mapping (DSM) uses advanced statistical and geostatistical methods to estimate soil properties across large areas. DSM integrates climate data, topographic features, geology, legacy soil maps, land management and remote sensing data. Bare soil spectra may reflect the presence of particular soil components, making satellite derived spectra suitable predictors of SOC. Bare soil spectra derived from Sentinel-2 were used to estimate SOC concentration (SOC%) and granulometric fractions in the plough layer (0–30 cm) of agricultural parcels in northern Belgium. Thereafter, the estimation performance of SOC% was compared for three DSM models: one with bare soil spectra, one with environmental covariates (topography, granulometry and vegetation), and a combined model with bare soil spectra and environmental covariates. The estimation performance of sand, silt and clay fractions using bare soil spectra from the spring seedbed (R2: 0.53–0.74; RPD: 1.49–2.05; RPIQ: 1.52–2.39) was higher than that of SOC% (R2: 0.16; RPD: 1.08; RPIQ: 1.32). The highest estimation performance of SOC% was obtained for a DSM model including all covariates (R2: 0.28; RPD: 1.18; RPIQ: 1.44), but the contribution of spring seedbed spectra to a model containing environmental covariates was small. The results provide valuable insights for refining soil property estimation using DSM with spectral and environmental covariates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy and market incentives are rapidly expanding to promote soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration in global croplands. Evidence suggests that long-term increases in SOC can influence both crop yield and nitrogen (N) fertilizer requirements, with the potential to help address two important sustainability challenges. However, increases in SOC may also trigger higher soil nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions, which would represent an important tradeoff for climate change mitigation. We tested the hypothesis that long-term increases in SOC are associated with higher crop yields and fertilizer N use efficiency (NUE), but at the cost of higher N 2 O emissions. Wheat was grown in two soils (SOC low and SOC high) under three N fertilizer rates (0, 100, and 200 kg N ha−1) in a mesocosm experiment. Soils were obtained (0–25 cm) from a 22-yr field experiment on no-till and cover cropping in California. Results indicate that total biomass and grain yield were higher for SOC low than SOC high at 100 kg N ha−1 but not the other N levels. Crop N uptake was also 28% greater for SOC low at 200 kg N ha−1, resulting in higher overall NUE. Soil N 2 O emissions increased for SOC high by 25–112% compared to SOC low , likely due to long-term changes in labile C and N pools, microbial activity, and soil structure influencing porosity and gas diffusion. While there are well-documented crop and environmental benefits from enhancing SOC in agricultural soils, results from this study suggest that changes in soil N 2 O emissions should be considered to accurately determine net GHG emission reductions. • Soil N 2 O emissions increased 25–112% with long-term soil carbon sequestration • Crop yields were not higher with increased SOC • Crop nitrogen uptake and nitrogen use efficiency decreased with increased SOC • Elevated N 2 O emissions presented a tradeoff for net GHG emission reductions [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Container farm (CF) is a promising method to satisfy the urban vegetable demand and achieve global climate goals. Vegetable growth in fully artificial interior environments enables an efficient, steady, and year-round production of vegetables despite outdoor climate conditions. However, the high energy intensity associated with CF remains a bottleneck for its generalization. To minimize the energy consumption of container farms (CFs), this study conducted a detailed energy examination and proposed an energy optimization workflow. In the energy examination, an energy model was developed based on the lumped parameter method using EnergyPlus and validated by two benchmark experiments on a specific CF on Chongming Island, Shanghai. The results revealed that the predicted energy consumption was consistent with the measured energy consumption: the normalized mean bias error (NMBE) was <1%, and the coefficient of variation of the root-mean-square error (CV(RMSE)) was <25% for the hourly air-conditioning energy. With the validated energy model, energy optimization was considered in the hot period and other period, tailored to the local climate and characteristics of the equipment in the target CF. Based on parallel computing, the optimal envelope design was determined by enumeration in the hot period, whereas the optimal mechanical ventilation schedule was obtained by the selection-after-subdivision method in the other period. The maximal energy-saving potential of the two-period workflow was 773.4 kWh, which accounted for 33.8% of the original air-conditioning energy use, i.e. 25% more saving than the non-staged method. This study provides suggestions for the CF energy examination and support CF design improvements and operation decision-making. The examination process and optimization workflow can be extended to energy savings in other indoor agricultural methods. • An energy model for container farm (CF) was proposed and validated. • Two-period optimization proposed: CF envelope design in hot periods and mechanical ventilation in others. • Two-period method conserved 25% more HVAC energy than commonly-used non-staged method. • The optimized workflow can save up to 1/3 of the annual HVAC energy compared to the current CF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable dairy production is included in the policy agenda of many countries in the tropics to address, among others, their commitment to the Paris Agreement. To the best of our knowledge, however, a study to assess the impact of the proposed interventions for sustainable dairy production is still lacking for most of those countries. Using policy goals as entry points to develop scenarios can provide insight into the impact of policy interventions on dairy farming practices. This study aimed to evaluate the implication of interventions towards sustainable dairy development identified by the governments of Indonesia and Costa Rica. Information about current farming practices (i.e. the baseline) were collected on 32 smallholder dairy farms in Indonesia and 24 dairy farms in Costa Rica. Scenarios were designed based on policy goals for dairy development and climate change mitigation in each country. The scenarios for Indonesia encompassed relocation of the dairy sector to Sumatra to allow coupling of livestock to land combined with a restriction on manure production to ensure all manure to be applied to grow forage, and a restriction on the amount of purchased feeds, at two levels: maximally 100% and 50% of the baseline. The scenarios for Costa Rica included a silvopastoral system and a reduction in the amount of purchased feeds, at two levels: 50% and 80% lower than the baseline. We estimated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at chain level and carbon (C) stocks at farm level. The scenarios for Indonesia increased herd size and milk output by 240–360%, and GHG emissions per farm by 269–455%, while decreased GHG emissions per kg milk by 1–10%, compared to the baseline. C stocks per farm were higher in the scenarios than in the baseline, but compared to natural vegetation much more C is lost under the scenarios because more land is being used. The scenarios for Costa Rica reduced herd size and milk output by 5–25% and GHG emissions per farm by 17–35%, while GHG emissions per kg milk decreased by 10%, compared to the baseline. C stocks per farm were comparable. To achieve the multiple policy goals for sustainable dairy development, the governments need to consider the trade-off between increasing milk production and reducing GHG emissions. In Indonesia, relocation of the dairy sector needs a strict policy to avoid the expansion of dairy farms into tropical forest land. Furthermore, the Costa Rican government needs to incentivise dairy farmers to implement a silvopastoral system to reduce GHG emissions and land use. This, however, will be at the expense of milk output. [Display omitted] • Implications of policy interventions for sustainable dairy development were assessed. • Scenario analysis shows trade-offs between policy goals for Indonesia and Costa Rica. • Improving feed self-sufficiency can contribute to climate change mitigation but needs land. • Silvopasture improves carbon stocks but climate change mitigation is limited. • Trade-off between enhanced milk production and climate change mitigation is evident. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a set of aspirational objectives for the world, addressing interlinked themes including poverty, hunger, and climate action. Meeting these goals requires a similarly integrated and interdisciplinary approach. One component of such an approach may be agrivoltaic systems (AVS): dual use solar and agricultural systems wherein crops are grown beneath and between solar panels. Given their intersectoral nature, AVS will have complex impacts on the achievement of the SDGs. This analysis seeks to evaluate how AVS could impact progress towards the SDGs based on literature around the impacts of agriculture, solar, and AVS, and the indicators measuring progress towards the SDGs. It uses a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) framework and applies it in a unique way to understand the direct and immediate impacts to the SDGs following the installation of an AVS (i.e., strengths and weaknesses), and the potential impacts on the SDGs based on secondary or supplementary actions taken once an AVS is installed (i.e., opportunities and threats). Though the most obvious of AVS' impacts to the SDGs will be on Goals 2 (Zero Hunger) and 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), evaluation of individual indicators shows that AVS can quantifiably impact 14 out of 17 SDGs, largely in a positive manner. However, evaluating impacts on the SDGs indicator by indicator also reveals possible negative, and unexpected, consequences of AVS. Yet, impacts on the SDGs will vary by location-specific factors such as climate, and so this analysis concludes with an application of the SWOT framework in Ethiopia for a farm where an AVS is under consideration. Altogether, this work should provide a means for evaluating the impacts of AVS on SDGs and insights into how to mitigate possible detrimental impacts while capitalizing on benefits. • Agrivoltaics measurably impact 13 out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. • Impacts of agrivoltaics depend on a reference case: single use agriculture or solar. • Agrivoltaic systems can underpin rural electrification of farms and schools. • Targeted government initiatives can capitalize on the benefits of agrivoltaics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Hedgerows and adjacent croplands at 23 sites across Germany were sampled. • Under hedgerows, 36 ± 49 % more soil organic carbon (SOC) was stored compared to cropland. • 41 % of absolute SOC stock increase was found in subsoil below 30 cm soil depth. • SOC stocks were also increased along the transect from the hedgerow to the cropland. • Planting hedgerows on 3 % of German cropland could increase SOC stocks by 13 Tg C. Carbon dioxide removal strategies are becoming increasingly important as a fundamental component of comprehensive climate policies. One strategy to increase carbon (C) sinks is the integration of hedgerows into agricultural landscapes. Besides additional C storage in above-ground and below-ground hedgerow biomass, the establishment of hedgerows has the potential to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. However, empirical data regarding the magnitude of SOC accrual with hedgerow establishment are still limited. We sampled 23 sites across Germany in a paired-plot approach with the aim of estimating SOC stock change with hedgerow establishment on cropland. At 21 sites, SOC stocks were higher beneath hedgerows than in the reference cropland. On average, SOC stock accrual was 29 ± 22 Mg ha−1 (36 ± 49 %) in 0–100 cm soil depth. SOC stocks were significantly different in both topsoil and subsoil. Subsoils below 30 cm depth contributed 41 % (12 ± 17 Mg C ha−1) of the total SOC stock change, stressing the importance of subsoil SOC for the total SOC stocks of hedgerow systems. The positive effect of hedgerows on SOC stocks extended laterally beyond the hedgerow area itself. SOC stock in the grassy hedgerow edge also increased significantly by 22 ± 22 Mg C ha−1 (28 ± 30 %) and SOC stock in the cropland directly adjacent to the hedgerow were 9 ± 19 Mg C ha−1 (12 ± 25 %) higher than in the reference cropland. Particularly high C stock differences between hedgerows and reference cropland soils were found in old hedgerows (>200 years) planted on hedgebanks, which are typically found in northern Germany. Our study confirmed that SOC stocks increase with hedgerow establishment on cropland throughout the whole soil profile. If hedgerows were to be established on 3 % of Germany's cropland area, SOC stocks would increase by 13 Tg C equivalent 48 Mio. t CO 2 , highlighting that hedgerows are a promising and multi-functional climate change mitigation option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil-based carbon farming has been identified in previous research as a win-win for farm productivity and the mitigation of climate change through carbon sequestration. However, it faces numerous barriers to adoption, including low carbon prices, high transaction costs, information barriers and high uncertainty around future outcomes, markets and policy conditions. Collaboration between landholders and other stakeholders has been proposed as a potential means of overcoming some of these barriers, while maximising the benefits of soil-based carbon farming. In this article, we present the results of a two-stage process investigating collaborative soil-based carbon farming in Australia, involving national-scale key informant interviews and a regional-scale Participatory Rural Appraisal. Fifty-three interviews were undertaken with key carbon farming stakeholders, including landholders, landholder groups, carbon service providers, government, researchers and the financial sector. Collaboration was seen to offer the greatest advantages in relation to knowledge-sharing and social support, followed by its potential to increase carbon income through enhanced bargaining power and the optimisation of co-benefits. The advantages of collaboration were less clear in relation to reducing costs or maximising farm productivity and collaboration also presents new challenges around risk and complexity. Under current conditions, informal collaboration models were seen to offer the best balance between the benefits and risks, with existing cooperatives also well-placed to diversify into carbon. Alternative conditions in the future or in other locations would be needed to facilitate models involving joint projects, pooled credits, shared land management and/or the creation of new carbon-specific cooperatives. • Soil-based carbon farming benefits both carbon sequestration and farm productivity. • Advantages of collaboration are greatest for knowledge-sharing and social support. • Collaboration less beneficial in relation to cost-reduction and farm productivity. • Informal models for collaboration preferred by study participants. • Existing agricultural cooperatives are well-placed to diversify into carbon farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate-smart agriculture aims amongst others at protecting and increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. The allocation of metabolised carbon (C) between soil microbial growth and respiration, i.e. C use efficiency (CUE) is crucial for SOC dynamics. We hypothesised that raising soil pH would alleviate CUE-limiting conditions and that liming could thus increase CUE, thereby supporting SOC accrual. This study investigated whether CUE can be manipulated by liming and how this might contribute to SOC stock changes. The effects of liming on CUE, microbial biomass C, abundance of microbial domains, SOC stocks and OC inputs were assessed for soils from three European long-term field experiments. Field control soils were additionally limed in the laboratory to assess immediate effects. The shift in soil pH H2O from 4.5 to 7.3 with long-term liming reduced CUE by 40 %, whereas the shift from 5.5 to 8.6 and from 6.5 to 7.8 was associated with increases in CUE by 16 % and 24 %, respectively. The overall relationship between CUE and soil pH followed a U-shaped (i.e. quadratic) curve, implying that in agricultural soils CUE may be lowest at pH H2O = 6.4. The immediate CUE response to liming followed the same trends. Changes in CUE with long-term liming contributed to the net effect of liming on SOC stocks. Our study confirms the value of liming as a management practice for climate-smart agriculture, but demonstrates that it remains difficult to predict the impact on SOC stocks due its complex effects on the C cycle. [Display omitted] • Liming altered CUE depending on the initial soil pH and the span of the pH shift. • At low pH, CUE declined with liming likely due to microbial community shifts. • At high pH, CUE increased with liming likely due to altered nutrient availability. • Liming increased microbial biomass C in all cases. • Changes in CUE with liming were not the primary cause for changes in SOC stocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical rainforests serve as invaluable global carbon stocks with long-term climate mitigation potential and important ecosystem functions and biodiversity. Recent scholarship has identified agriculture as the main driver of tropical rainforest deforestation worldwide, yet effective policy action needs to understand why farmers continue to clear land, beyond broad-brush attributions of blame. This study highlights the constellation of social forces that drive deforestation in a subsection of the Mache Chindul Ecological Reserve (REMACH) in northwest Ecuador. Rather than simply assuming that farmers are either indifferent to or ignorant of the effects of deforestation, we highlight the perspective of farmers themselves as they reflect on, both, their relationship with other key actors and the broader contextual factors informing their own land-use decisions. We surveyed 70 rural households using a 45-question data collection tool, conducted semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders such as local conservation practitioners and community elders, employed participant observation and reviewed government documents. We find that colonist farmers who live in and around the REMACH clear land because they view doing so as their most reliable means of securing a livelihood for themselves and their children in a context of political and economic hardship and uncertainty. A history of government incentives to clear land, a deeply ambiguous land tenure system, and a sudden influx of externally-funded conservation NGOs to the region have all contributed to exclude farmers from the decision-making process, while simultaneously exacerbating the conditions that make deforestation farmers' most practical option—despite their awareness of its environmental impact. The data underscore that locals are, in fact, highly invested in the idea of conserving a healthy environment for future generations, but are nonetheless driven to act against this interest by their own precarity. By helping governmental and non-governmental conservation practitioners better understand farmers' land-use decisions, the study reframes the latter group not as the problem, but as vital future partners. • Complex social dynamics drive deforestation in Ecuador's Mache Chindul Reserve. • Historical policies and conservation interventions drive ongoing deforestation. • Farmers seek livelihood amid political, economic, and environmental hardship. • Conservation efforts must include farmers' needs and values. • Contextual and interpretative explanations are crucial in addressing deforestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Nations 2030 Agenda brings a holistic and multi-sectoral view on sustainability via the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, a successful implementation of this agenda is contingent on understanding the multiple, complex interactions among SDGs, including both synergies and trade-offs, for informing planning for sustainability at the local level. Using a case study in the Goulburn-Murray region in Victoria, Australia, we prioritised global goals and targets for the local context, characterised the interactions between them, analysed the main synergies and trade-offs, and identified potential policy solutions to achieve local sustainability. We identified the five highest priority SDGs for the region as clean water and sanitation (SDG 6), agricultural activities (SDG 2), economic growth (SDG 8), climate action (SDG 13), and life on land (SDG 15). Across these five priority SDGs and their 45 targets, we found 307 potential interactions, of which 126 (41%) were synergistic, 19 (6%) were trade-offs, and 162 (53%) were benign. We highlight the most salient trade-offs, particularly how unsustainable agricultural practices could negatively affect water resources, the environment, and sustainable economic growth. Also, critical ongoing uncertainties like climate change, local policies on environmental water recovery, international markets, and emerging new technologies could pose risks for the future of agriculture and the economy. Our results provide important insights for local and regional sustainability policy and planning across multiple sectors. Our methodology is also broadly applicable for prioritising SDGs and assessing their interactions at local scales, thereby supporting evidence-based policy-making for the SDGs. • A successful implementation of SDGs depends on understanding of SDG interactions. • Our approach is participatory and systematic in capturing SDG interactions. • The most trade-offs are related to SDG 2 and SDG 8 with other local priority SDGs. • We design solutions to leverage synergistic interactions and limit the trade-offs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mitigation of climate change requires that agricultural development would proceed in accordance with green and sustainable practices. This implies that economic performance should be improved while minimizing the impact on the environment. One way to assess the underlying costs of sustainable agricultural development, and to model the relationship between the environment and the economy in general, is to use the carbon shadow price (CSP). In this paper, we utilize a by-production model within a non-parametric framework to estimate the agricultural CSP from 1997 to 2020 in 31 provinces of China. The patterns of the agricultural CSP are unveiled through kernel density analysis and convergence tests. Additionally, this paper constructs a comprehensive agricultural informatization indicator using the entropy method. We then empirically investigate its influence on agricultural CSP. The results reveal that China's agricultural CSP has demonstrated consistent growth over the past two decades which suggests serious improvement in environmental performance. Furthermore, the CSP show cross-province variation, albeit with conditional β convergence. Our empirical findings indicate that agricultural information technology contributes to an increase in CSP, thereby indicating its positive role on the green growth of agriculture in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Soil water regulation was improved by enrollment in stewardship programs. • Greater soil carbon was observed with enrollment in stewardship programs. • Grassland set-aside with winter cover cropping improved soil organic carbon storage potential. • Enrollment in stewardship programs can lead to regenerative outcomes. Agricultural stewardship programs that incentivize practices such as winter cover cropping (WCC), grassland set-asides (GLSA), and hedgerows (HR) for intensive annual agricultural production are often implemented to improve both soil conditions and provision of wildlife habitat in coastal agricultural systems of the Fraser River Delta, British Columbia (BC). Although these programs have been shown to support numerous ecosystem services, it is unclear how they contribute to regenerative agricultural outcomes. Regenerative agricultural practices aim to increase soil carbon inputs and reduce carbon dioxide losses which in turn improves soil structure, optimizes soil water regulation, and provides climate mitigation and resiliency of agricultural systems. The objectives of this study were to quantify the effects of agricultural stewardship programs for regenerative outcomes through indicators of climate mitigation and adaptation. Twenty-six fields in the southwestern, BC were grouped by those that participated in stewardship programs between 1992 and 2016 and those that did not. In the spring of 2018, soil samples were collected; soil organic carbon (SOC) concentrations were measured, and stocks were calculated; pedo-transfer functions were used to estimate soil water regulation indicators; and differences among stewardship program and non-program fields were statistically analyzed using a linear mixed effects model. The SOC (mg kg−1) from 0 to 15 cm was greater with implementation of stewardship programs. Topsoil equivalent soil mass SOC stocks (t/ha) were 71 % and 63 % greater in HR and WCC + GLSA program fields, respectively, compared to non-program fields. Soil workability threshold was 25 % and 14 % greater in HR and WCC + GLSA program fields, respectively, compared to non-program. Our results indicate that stewardship programs that include hedgerows and grassland set-asides promote accrual of soil carbon and improved soil water regulation and show that these programs can effectively enhance regenerative outcomes and improve agroecosystem resilience in this important agricultural region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Europe, increasing the area of legume crops has been identified as a key measure to achieve the objectives set by the European Green Deal and transition toward more sustainable food systems. Although the role of grain legumes in climate change mitigation has been closely examined, little research has focused on how climate change will challenge the development of these crops. This article systematically reviews recent simulation studies to assess the impact of climate change on grain legume performances in Europe and the effect of adaptation strategies. Forty papers using process-based, ecological niche, or statistical models were selected to simulate the response of eight grain legume species to future climate (2020–2100) in Europe. The lack of data on adaptation strategies in Europe was compensated for by enlarging the study area to climatically similar regions. The review highlights a notable imbalance between research about soybean versus other grain legumes, with soybean representing approximately 80% of selected studies. Studies focused on soybean found good agreement, with yield or suitability gains found in northern Europe and a higher probability of yield losses in southern and south-eastern Europe. While a similar spatial pattern may be expected for other grain legumes, the scarcity of data makes this result more uncertain. The review also shows that several adaptation strategies have the potential to mitigate the negative impact of climate change on grain legume performances or enhance its positive impact. The most promising strategies tested include irrigation, change in sowing date, and cultivar choice. In addition, we identify several knowledge gaps that, if addressed, would support legume development in Europe. In particular, key species such as field pea, faba bean, lentil, and chickpea remain blind spots, despite their prominent role in European environmental, agricultural, and nutritional policies. Other knowledge gaps include a lack of accounting for crop response to elevated CO 2 , ozone, and future biotic pressure, and a limited range of adaptation strategies tested and indicators assessed. Implementing multi-criteria analyses that involve stakeholders would help identify relevant inputs and outputs for future simulations. • We review 40 papers assessing grain legume response to climate change in Europe. • Grain legumes other than soybean are blind spots despite their role in policies. • For soybean, yield gains are expected in the north and yield losses in the south. • Adaptation strategies can mitigate the impact of climate change on grain legumes. • We identify several knowledge gaps, including a lack of data on key legume species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The soil security concept has been put forward to maintain and improve soil resources inter alia to provide food, clean water, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and to protect ecosystems. A provisional framework suggested indicators for the soil security dimensions, and a methodology to achieve a quantification. In this study, we illustrate the framework for the function soil carbon storage and the two dimensions of soil capacity and soil condition. The methodology consists of (i) the selection and quantification of a small set of soil indicators for capacity and condition, (ii) the transformation of indicator values to unitless utility values via expert-generated utility graphs, and (iii) a two-level aggregation of the utility values by soil profile and by dimension. For capacity, we used a set of three indicators: total organic and inorganic carbon content and mineral associated organic carbon in the fine fraction (MAOC) estimated via their reference value using existing maps of pedogenons and current landuse to identify areas of remnant genosoils (total organic and inorganic carbon) and the 90th percentile for MAOC. For condition we used the same set of indicators, but this time using the estimated current value and comparing with their reference-state values (calculated for capacity). The methodology was applied to the whole of Australia at a spatial resolution of 90 m × 90 m. The results show that the unitless indicator values supporting the function varied greatly in Australia. Aggregation of the indicators into the two dimensions of capacity and condition revealed that most of Australia has a relatively low capacity to support the function, but that most soils are in a generally good condition relative to that capacity, with some exceptions in agricultural areas, although more sampling of the remnant genosoils is required for corroboration and improvement. The maps of capacity and condition may serve as a basis to estimate a spatially-explicit local index of Australia's soil resilience to the threat of decarbonization. • Methodology based on the soil security assessment framework. • Quantification of the capacity and condition of the soil to store carbon. • Spatial estimation of the utility to support carbon storage for three indicators. • Australia has low capacity, but overall good condition to store carbon. • Intensive up-to-date sampling is required to corroborate the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry, a sustainable land-use system that integrates trees with crops and/or livestock, is recognized as an effective strategy for synergizing climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts in India. However, the prevalence of limited land under agroforestry indicates the presence of significant constraints hindering its widespread implementation. To address this challenge, the State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC) represents a potentially potent policy tool for driving the expansion of agroforestry at the sub-national level. The aim of this study was to examine (i) how the SAPCCs recognized and reported the benefits of agroforestry for climate change adaptation and mitigation, and (ii) what policy approaches are put forth to operationalize agroforestry in India. For this study, the information on agroforestry was coded using a hybrid approach (a combination of deductive and inductive coding) followed by thematic analysis and peer debriefing (for validation of the generated codes and themes). Many of the mitigation and adaptation benefits of agroforestry are reflected in the SAPCCs. However, the predominant focus of these SAPCCs has been on tree-based agroforestry, with insufficient attention given to the crop-tree-livestock nexus, which could offer greater scope for reducing agricultural emissions. Furthermore, existing constraints to the expansion of agroforestry have not been adequately addressed, and the strategies proposed lack the necessary precision to enable effective implementation on the ground. These shortcomings are further compounded by the absence of accurate budgetary estimates, thereby hindering the ability to execute meaningful actions at the grassroots level. The results of this study could offer valuable perspectives on how the potential benefits of agroforestry may be harnessed more prudently to realize mitigation and adaptation outcomes in India while aligning with the country's Nationally Determined Contributions and building sustainable livelihood. [Display omitted] • India's sub-national climate change action plans acknowledge agroforestry's potential for climate change adaptation and mitigation. • However, the plans primarily focus on adding trees to expand agroforestry and overlook the potential of agrosilvopastoral systems. • The existing constraints of agroforestry adoption in India are not sufficiently addressed, and budget estimates vary significantly among states. • To address these issues, the plans require revision to incorporate specific actions and a clear implementation roadmap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural landscapes play a crucial role in global carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. The presence of trees outside forests has been recognized as a significant carbon pool, but it is crucial to acknowledge that these trees serve purposes beyond being a carbon sink. This study focuses on integrating border trees and home gardens as distinct land use classes in Indonesian Javanese agricultural land to assess their impact on carbon stock potential and biodiversity connections. The objective is to classify and quantify the tree composition of these classes, estimate their carbon stock potential, analyze plant species diversity, and identify the ecological connections between home gardens and field borders. To achieve this, high-resolution multispectral and Synthetic Aperture Radar images were used from four sampling areas covering 100 km2 each in Lamongan and Malang districts, East Java, Indonesia, for land cover/land use mapping. The land use function method was used to identify border trees and home gardens as separate land use classes. Carbon stock potential was estimated based on tree cover composition, while plant species diversity was analyzed through field surveys and farmer focus group discussions. Crops with border trees cover approximately 28% to 48% of the cropland area in the study sites, while home gardens represent about 74% to 85% of the settlement area. This suggests a potential to double tree presence in these sites by adopting border trees and home gardens practices across the entire area. The median tree cover ratio was around 27% for border trees and 33% for home gardens. This stratification approach identified 31% to 50% more carbon stock compared to calculations using standard classes. Furthermore, home gardens and border trees show a positive correlation with species richness, indicating their role as keepers of biodiversity. Therefore, home gardens and border trees could serve as a sustainability indicator for agricultural land in the Javanese farm system. This research contributes to sustainable agricultural practices and climate change mitigation. The stratification approach of identifying border trees and home gardens offers a cost-effective approach for the better computation of carbon stock and can lead to effective land use policies and conservation measures that promote ecological resilience. The study provides valuable insights for similar agricultural contexts worldwide, guiding efforts toward a more sustainable agricultural future. [Display omitted] • Trees outside forests constitute significant carbon pools and play diverse ecological roles, not just carbon sinks. • Proposed classification categories of "home gardens" & "border trees" can enhance our understanding of their functions. • Multispectral and Synthetic Aperture Radar images were used for the analysis of land use and land cover. • This stratification approach identifies 31–50% more carbon stock than the conventional approach. • The home gardens and border trees area have a positive correlation with the number of species richness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Climate smart practices increase soil carbon in a Corn Belt agricultural field. • Eddy covariance and soil sample analyses both detected increases in SOC. • Net Ecosystem Carbon Balance showed the most increase during the non-cash crop season. Climate smart agricultural practices have received considerable attention recently for their potential for climate change mitigation through sequestering atmospheric carbon. Despite the enthusiasm for climate smart practices, there is limited evidence they are more effective at removing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it in the soil than current practices. We hypothesized that a field with aspirational (ASP) practices (i.e., no-till corn-soybean-wheat-hay rotation with cover crops) would accumulate more soil organic carbon (SOC) versus a business-as-usual (BAU) field (i.e., conventional-tillage, corn-soybean-soybean rotation). We used deep soil cores (1 m) to assess changes in soil organic carbon (ΔSOC) between 2016 and 2022 for the two fields and compare with estimates based on eddy covariance calculation of ΔSOC. We found that the ASP field had ΔSOC that was positive, and larger than the BAU field. Both the soil sample method (ΔSOC SS) and the eddy covariance method (ΔSOC EC) agreed on this point, but the magnitude of ΔSOC was much larger when estimated with soil samples (ΔSOC SS was 1.9 ± 1.7 % yr−1 and -0.7 ± 1.3 % yr−1 at ASP and BAU, respectively) than with eddy covariance (ΔSOC EC was 0.80 ± 0.09 % yr−1 and 0.12 ± 0.06 % yr−1 at ASP and BAU, respectively). Finally, we used the continuous measurements of carbon fluxes from the eddy covariance towers to examine how conservation practices (cover crops, no-till, or expanded crop rotation) led to increased carbon storage. We found that unharvested cover crops add carbon to the soil that offsets net carbon losses that otherwise reduce soil carbon storage when the field is fallow. No-till and expanded crop rotations also affect the carbon budget of the agro-ecosystems. Results from this study illustrate the value of conservation practices in a changing climate and the value of eddy covariance measurements for assessing climate smart practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop residue burning is a common practice in many parts of the world that causes air pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Regenerative practices that return residues to the soil offer a 'no burn' pathway for addressing air pollution while building soil organic carbon (SOC). Nevertheless, GHG emissions in rice-based agricultural systems are complex and difficult to anticipate, particularly in production contexts with highly variable hydrologic conditions. Here we predict long-term net GHG fluxes for four rice residue management strategies in the context of rice-wheat cropping systems in Eastern India: burning, soil incorporation, livestock fodder, and biochar. Estimations were based on a combination of Tier 1, 2, and 3 modelling approaches, including 100-year DNDC simulations across three representative soil hydrologic categories (i.e., dry, median, and wet). Overall, residue burning resulted in total direct GHG fluxes of 2.5, 6.1, and 8.7 Mg CO 2 -e in the dry, median, and wet hydrologic categories, respectively. Relative to emissions from burning (positive values indicate an increase) for the same dry to wet hydrologic categories, soil incorporation resulted in a −0.2, 1.8, or 3.1 Mg CO 2 -e change in emissions whereas use of residues for livestock fodder increased emissions by 2.0, 2.1, or 2.3 Mg CO 2 -e. Biochar reduced emissions relative to burning by 2.9 Mg CO 2 -e in all hydrologic categories. This study showed that the production environment has a controlling effect on methane and, therefore, net GHG balance. For example, wetter sites had 2.8–4.0 times greater CH 4 emissions, on average, than dry sites when rice residues were returned to the soil. To effectively mitigate burning without undermining climate change mitigation goals, our results suggest that geographically-target approaches should be used in the rice-based systems of Eastern India to incentivize the adoption of regenerative 'no burn' residue management practices. • Efforts to build SOC for climate change mitigation, while simultaneously avoiding burning, may have unintended consequences. • Tier 1, 2, and 3 modelling approaches were used to compare no-burn rice residue pathways. • Field hydrology had a dominant effect on methane emissions. • Soil incorporation of residues increased emissions relative to open burning, except in comparatively dry fields. • Biochar is estimated to have the lowest GHG emissions of the evaluated 'no burn' alternatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• European citizens expect farmers to deliver multiple functions from their land. • The nature and magnitude of these 'societal demands' differ between Member States. • We map these demands by reviewing the EU policies on sustainable land management. • Countries with the lowest societal demands have invested most in sustainability. • The proposed Strategic Plans allow for context-specific land management practices. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union (EU) has been highly successful in securing the supply of food from Europe's agricultural land. However, new expectations have emerged from society on the functions that agricultural land should deliver, including the expectations that land should regulate and purify water, should sequester carbon to contribute to the mitigation of climate change, should provide a home for biodiversity and allow for the sustainable cycling of nutrients in animal and human waste streams. Through a series of reforms of the CAP, these expectations, or 'societal demands' have translated into a myriad of EU and national level policies aimed at safeguarding the sustainability and multifunctionality of European agriculture, resulting in a highly complex regulatory environment for land managers. The current reform of the CAP aims to simultaneously simplify and strengthen policy making on environmental protection and climate action, through the development of Strategic Plans at national level, which allow for more targeted and context-specific policy formation. In this paper, we contribute to the knowledge base underpinning the development of these Strategic Plans by mapping the variation in the societal demands for soil functions across EU Member States, based on an extensive review of the existing policy environment relating to sustainable and multifunctional land management. We show that the societal demands for primary production, water regulation and purification, carbon sequestration, biodiversity and nutrient cycling vary greatly between Member States, as determined by population, farming systems and livestock densities, geo-environmental conditions and landscape configuration. Moreover, the total societal demands for multifunctionality differs between Member States, with the lowest demands found in Member States that have designated the higher shares of EU CAP funding towards 'Pillar 2′ expenditure, aimed at environmental protection and regional development. We review which lessons can be learnt from these observations, in the context of the proposals for the new CAP for the period 2021–2027, which include enhanced conditionality of direct income support for farmers and the instigation of eco-schemes in Pillar 1, in addition to Agri-Environmental and Climate Measures in Pillar 2. We conclude that the devolution of planning to Strategic Plans at national level provides an opportunity for more effective and targeted incentivisation of sustainable land management, provided that these plans take account for variations in the societal demand for soil functions, as well as the capacity of contrasting soils to deliver on this multifunctionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• In-field variation in soil C stocks is assumed to make change detection infeasible. • We test this 'infeasibility assumption' using soils data from 45 cropland fields. • Estimated management effects for individual fields are wildly inaccurate. • Yet project-scale (i.e., multi-field) effect sizes can be robust and accurate. • Empirical sampling with current methods can inform the soil carbon debate. There is disagreement about the potential for regenerative management practices to sequester sufficient soil organic carbon (SOC) to help mitigate climate change. Measuring change in SOC stocks following practice adoption at the grain of farm fields, within the extent of regional agriculture, could help resolve this disagreement. Yet sampling demands to quantify change are considered infeasible primarily because within-field variation in stock sizes is thought to obscure accurate quantification of management effects on incremental SOC accrual. We evaluate this 'infeasibility assumption' using high-density (e.g., 0.1 ha sample–1), within-field, sampling data from 45 cropland fields inventoried for SOC. We explore how more typical within-field sampling densities, as well as field numbers and magnitude of simulated change in SOC stocks, impacts the ability to accurately quantify management effects on SOC change. We find that (1) stock change estimates for individual fields are inaccurate and variable, where marked losses and gains in SOC stocks are frequently estimated even when no change has occurred. Higher sampling densities (e.g., 1.2 versus 4.0 ha sample–1) narrow the range of estimated stock changes but inaccuracies remain large. (2) The accuracy of stock change estimates at the project level (i.e., multiple fields) were similarly sensitive to sampling density. In contrast to individual fields, however, higher sampling densities, as well as a greater number of fields (e.g., 30), generated robust and accurate, mean project-level estimates of carbon accrual, with ∼ 80 % of the estimates falling within 20 % of the simulated stock change. Yet such monitoring designs do not account for dynamic baselines, which necessitates measurement of stock changes in control, non-regenerative fields. We find (3) that higher sampling densities (e.g., 1.2 versus 4.0 ha sample–1), field numbers (e.g., 30 versus 10 pairs of fields), and magnitudes of simulated SOC stock change (+3 and +5 versus +1 Mg C ha−1 10 y–1) are then collectively required to make accurate estimates of management effects on stock change at the project level. The simulated effect sizes that could be consistently detected under these conditions included rates of SOC accrual considered achievable and meaningful for climate mitigation (e.g., 3 Mg C ha−1 10 y–1), with field numbers and sampling densities that are reasonable given current sampling methods. Our findings reveal the potential to use empirical approaches to accurately quantify, at project scales, SOC stock responses to practice change. We provide recommendations for data that government, farmer and corporate entities should measure and share to build confidence in the effects of regenerative practices, freeing the SOC debate from overreliance on theory and data collected at scales mismatched with agricultural management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We examine the effects of the Tigray (Ethiopia) Land Registration and Certification Programme (LRCP) on agricultural productivity, and on climate change mitigation and adaptation. • We employ satellite-based measures of greenness and compare pixels in Tigray with those in the neighbouring Amhara region, before and after the implementation of the reform, using a difference-in-differences design. • We find that the LRCP had positive effects on productivity, climate change mitigation and adaptation. • Our findings are consistent with a conceptual framework associating the LRCP to the adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture due to increased land tenure security. • Our results suggest that land reforms have the potential to contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation. This study examines the effects of the land registration and certification programme introduced in 1998 in the Tigray region of Ethiopia on agricultural productivity, climate change mitigation and adaptation. We use satellite-based measures of greenness and implement a difference-in-differences approach, comparing pixels on both sides of the Tigray-Amhara regional border. Results show positive and persistent effects of the programme on agricultural productivity and climate change mitigation. By examining years when adverse climate and weather events occurred, we also find evidence of increased adaptation to climate change. We show that our results are consistent with the reform enhancing farmers' tenure security and inducing an increase in the adoption of climate smart agricultural practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cover crops are widely advocated for increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) levels, thereby benefiting soil health improvement and climate change mitigation. Few regional-scale studies have robustly explored SOC stocks under cover cropping, due to limited long-term experiments. We used the unique experimental data from the North American Project to Evaluate Soil Health Measurements conducted in 2019 to address this issue. This study included 19 agricultural research sites with 36 pairs of cover cropping established between 1896 and 2014. Explanatory variables related to site-specific environmental conditions and management practices were collected to identify and prioritize contributing factors that affect SOC stocks with cover crops, by coupling the Boruta algorithm and structural equation modeling. Overall, cover crops significantly (P < 0.05) improved several indicators of soil health, including greater SOC (concentration: +8%; stock: +7%), total nitrogen (+8%), water-stable aggregates (+15%), and potential carbon mineralization (+34%), on average, compared to no cover crop control. Likewise, on average, cover crops sequestered SOC 3.55 Mg C ha-1 (0–15 cm depth), with a sequestration rate of 0.24 Mg C ha-1 yr-1. In addition, we found climate (Hargreaves climatic moisture deficit) was important in explaining the variation of SOC stocks with cover crops, followed by soil properties (e.g., soil clay content). In terms of management practices, cover crop type had a significant positive (0.36) effect on SOC stocks, with non-legumes showing a greater impact, compared to legumes and mixtures. Crop rotational diversity also had a positive (0.28) effect on SOC accumulation. Our findings suggested that integrating non-legume cover crops into diverse crop rotation is likely to be a promising strategy to maximize SOC stocks with cover crops across North America. • Prioritized factors affecting soil organic carbon stocks under cover cropping. • Investigated 19 long-term experiments with cover crops in North America. • Used models coupling the Boruta algorithm and structural equation modeling. • Descending from climate > cover crop type > soil clay content > rotation > tillage. • Cover crops sequestrated carbon 3.55 Mg C ha-1, at a rate of 0.24 Mg C ha-1yr-1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural management can influence soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and thus may contribute to carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation. The soil depth to which agricultural management practices affect SOC is uncertain. Soil depth may have an important bearing on soil carbon dynamics, so it is important to consider depth effects to capture fully changes in SOC stocks. This applies in particular to the evaluation of carbon farming measures, which are becoming increasingly important due to climate change. We sampled and analysed the upper metre of mineral cropland soils from ten long-term experiments (LTEs) in Germany to quantify depth-specific effects on SOC stocks of common agricultural management practices: mineral nitrogen (N) fertilisation, a combination of N, phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fertilisation, irrigation, a crop rotation with preceding crops (pre-crops), straw incorporation, application of farmyard manure (FYM), liming, and reduced tillage. In addition, the effects of soil compaction on SOC stocks were examined as a negative side effect of agricultural management. Results showed that 19 ± 3 % of total management effects on SOC stocks were found in the upper subsoil (30–50 cm) and 3 ± 4 % in the lower subsoil (50–100 cm), including all agricultural management practices with significant topsoil SOC effects, while 79 ± 7 % of management effects were in the topsoil (0–30 cm). Nitrogen and NPK fertilisation were the treatments that had the greatest effect on subsoil organic carbon (OC) stocks, followed by irrigation, FYM application and straw incorporation. Sampling down to a depth of 50 cm resulted in significantly higher SOC effects than when considering topsoil only. A crop rotation with pre-crops, liming, reduced tillage and soil compaction did not significantly affect SOC stocks at any depth increment. Since approximately 20 % of the impact of agricultural management on SOC stocks occurs in the subsoil, we recommend soil monitoring programs and carbon farming schemes extend their standard soil sampling down to 50 cm depth to capture fully agricultural management effects on SOC. • Ten 32- to 112-year-old long-term experiments were sampled down to 100 cm depth. • Sampling only topsoil ignores 20 % of agricultural management effects on SOC stocks. • Mineral fertilisation had the greatest effect on subsoil organic carbon stocks. • None of the agricultural measures had significant effects deeper than 50 cm. • Standard soil sampling should therefore be extended to 50 cm depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transition towards soil-health sustaining crop production is at the core of climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts in agriculture. Improving soil conditions for resilience to variable and extreme weather conditions are among the main expectations of farmers implementing sustainable management practices. In this study, we evaluate whether the transition from conventional arable towards soil-health oriented farming systems restores soil pore characteristics towards non-arable natural soils and identify factors predominantly shaping different pore domains. Pore size distributions (PSD) at 20 sites with diverse soil types from adjacent fields of (1) standard arable, (2) soil health-oriented pioneer farming and (3) non-arable natural reference soils were measured. Based on parametric PSD descriptors, management-responsive functional pore classes and the role of textural, biochemical and structural drivers in different pore domains were analysed by a novel data-driven evaluation method. Parametric descriptors indicate an evolution from non-disturbed natural to intensively disturbed standard arable soils towards larger structural pores within a less heterogeneous structural domain. These shifts go along with less medium-sized storage pores, which overall was the most management sensitive pore fraction. Our novel data-driven approach confirmed a partial regeneration of natural pore characteristics with soil-health oriented practices. The most responsive pore domain was found in the range of ∼0.3–0.5 µm. The SOC-to-clay ratio was the predominant driver for structural porosity in both pioneer arable and natural reference soils. On the contrary, soil texture exerted the main control on the PSD pattern over the entire range of pore classes for standard farming systems. Overall, our study demonstrated that soil-health oriented pioneer farmers could effectively advance in managing functionally relevant pore domains for climate change resilience by promoting biological agents of structure formation. • Soil health-oriented farming partly restores pore characteristics of natural soils. • Functionally relevant pore domains for water storage were also restored. • Pore formation in soil health-oriented farming systems overcomes texture dependency. • We present a novel method for evaluating management-responsive pore domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Arable measures bear high potential to affect topsoil SOC stocks. • Mineral and organic fertilization, straw incorporation caused major SOC gain. • Liming and reduced tillage had little or even negative effects on SOC storage. • Sandy soils exhibited the largest relative response to management options. • Up to 10‰ SOC accrual per year were reached by combination of measures. Crop production often leads to soil organic carbon (SOC) losses. However, under good management practice it is possible to maintain and even re-accumulate SOC. We evaluated how different cropland management techniques affected SOC stocks in the topsoil (0–30 cm depth) of 10 long-term experiments (LTE) in Germany. We found that SOC stocks were particularly enhanced by mineral fertilization and organic amendments like straw incorporation and to a smaller degree by irrigation, but only slightly affected by the choice of preceding crops. In agreement with global meta -analyses, liming and reduced tillage had little or even negative effects on SOC storage, but effects also depended on fertilization. Management effects on SOC stocks were dependent on soil texture: sandy soils showed the lowest SOC stocks of 20.9 ± 2.3 (standard error of the mean) Mg ha−1, but exhibited the largest relative response to different management options. Annual changes in SOC stocks ranged from −3.0 ‰ with no mineral N fertilization, to + 6.1 ‰ with farmyard manure application, using the mineral-fertilized and limed treatment as reference. Even higher rates of up to + 10.6 ‰ yr−1 were reached with the combination of irrigation and straw incorporation. Note that the contribution of organic amendments to SOC accrual and thus to climate change mitigation must be adjusted for reduction in SOC at sites from which straw was removed. Overall, the potential of agricultural management to influence and enhance SOC stocks is significant. This potential is controlled by soil type and land-use duration, is largest for sandy soils with overall lowest SOC stocks, and is characterized by antagonistic and synergistic effects of different management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Conservation Agriculture is able to mitigate climate change in Africa. • Both annual and perennial crops are able to contribute to C sequestration. • Potential estimate of C sequestration is 145 Mt per year, which is 533 Mt CO 2. • This figure represents about 95 times the current sequestration figure. Africa is the smallest contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions among the continents, but the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The effects will not be limited to a rising average temperature and changing rainfall patterns, but also to increasing severity and frequency in droughts, heat stress and floods. Agriculture is not only impacted upon by climate change but also contributes to global warming. However, not all agricultural systems affect negatively climate change. Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that promotes continuous no or minimum soil disturbance (i.e. no tillage), maintenance of a permanent soil mulch cover, and diversification of plant species. Through these principles it enhances biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, so contributing to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and productivity, to more resilient cropping systems, and to improved and sustained crop production. Conservation Agriculture is based on the practical application of three interlinked principles along with complementary good agricultural practice. The characteristics of CA make it one of the systems best able to contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration. In this article, the carbon sequestration potential of CA is assessed, both in annual and perennial crops, in the different agro-climatic regions of Africa. In total, the potential estimate of annual carbon sequestration in African agricultural soils through CA amounts to 143 Tg of C per year, that is 524 Tg of CO 2 per year. This figure represents about 93 times the current sequestration figure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural lands is vital for global food production and greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation. Accurate quantification of the change in SOC stocks at regional or national scales, which depends heavily on reliable spatiotemporal carbon (C) input data, remains a big challenge. Here we use the process-based RothC model to estimate change in SOC stocks across Canada for 1971 to 2015, based on calculated annual C flows between cropland and livestock sectors. Total C input to 0–20 cm soils from crops, manure, and biosolids in Canada increased by 81% from 1971 to 2015, which shifted Canadian agricultural lands from a CO 2 source before 1990 (−1.1 Tg C yr−1) to a small sink during 1990–2005 (4.6 Tg C yr−1), and a larger sink thereafter (10.6 Tg C yr−1). The increasing trend of SOC stocks is mainly driven by the increases in crop yield; the enhanced C sink since 2005 reflects increasing C input largely driven by the increasing area and yield of canola. SOC sequestration showed a potential to offset ~34% or more of agricultural GHG emission since 1990. Increasing crop yields and adopting crop mixes that input proportionately more below-ground C, such as canola and oat, showed potential additional opportunity to sequester SOC, estimated at 1.7 Tg C yr−1 for 2016–2030 in Canada. This study illustrates that SOC sequestration is driven largely by plant C inputs, and shows that agronomic measures which augment C input through crop choices and yield-enhancing practices can profoundly benefit climate mitigation strategies. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Increasing crop production affects agricultural SOC and thereby GHG mitigation. • A whole-system (cropland and livestock) C fluxes analysis was performed. • Total carbon input to 0–20 cm soils increased by 81% from 1971 to 2015 in Canada. • Canadian agricultural land shifted from a CO 2 source before 1990 to a sink thereafter. • Increasing C input through crop choices and yield-enhance benefit SOC sequestration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Strategies for sustainably increasing sugarcane productivity without any negative implications to the environment are challenging. In the present investigation, field trials were conducted to demonstrate the potential of an agro-technique involving foliar applications of Kappaphycus alvarezii seaweed based biostimulant in combination with recommended rate of synthetic fertilizers (RRF) for sustainably enhancing sugarcane production and mitigating environmental impacts. Kappaphycus seaweed extract (KSWE) applied at 5% concentration enhanced cane productivity by 12.5 and 8%, respectively, in plant and ratoon crops. Interestingly, the treatment involving 6.25% KSWE +50% RRF showed yield parity (p < 0.05) with control (water+100% RRF) in ratoon while there was 7.9% reduction over control in plant crop with a concomitant savings of 50% RRF. These results revealed that KSWE application in addition to recommended rate of fertilizer application, can reduce gap between potential and real yield which otherwise requires application of incremental inputs in the form of synthetic fertilizers to obtain similar yields. The findings confirmed our hypothesis that the use of KSWE not only results in hypothetical savings in the incremental application of synthetic fertilizers but also can be used for achieving target yields sustainably. The sugar yield too was enhanced thus increasing the returns on investment. The technique is practically feasibility and scalability. The potential of the KSWE in lowering GHGs is manifested by the way of saving at least 260 kg CO 2 equivalents (Mg cane production)−1 ha−1 when applied at 5% concentration. This would translate in to savings of ca. 9.3 million Mg of CO 2 equivalents if one assumes employing KSWE for at least 10% of the total cane production in India for the year 2015–16. Therefore, the present study advocates a paradigm shift in policy to encourage use of biostimulants in the context of mitigating adverse effects of global climate change and expecting better returns from sugarcane cultivation. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • Kappaphycus seaweed extract (KSWE) at 5% concentration enhanced cane productivity by ca. 10%. • Kappaphycus extract along with 50% RRF showed yield parity with control in ratoon. • Saving of 260 kg per tonne of cane production can be envisaged by use of KSWE. • Kappaphycus seaweed extract can facilitate in mitigating climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The use of aesthetics for classifying and accepting fresh food for sale and consumption is built into food quality standards and regulations of the European Union. The food distribution sector in Europe and the UK is oligopolistic in nature; a small number of supermarket chains control a large market share. The influence of these ‘multiples’ enables them to impose additional proprietary ‘quality’ criteria. Produce that doesn't meet these standards may be lost from the food supply chain, never seeing a supermarket shelf – it may not get past the supplier, or even leave the farm. Here, for the first time, we estimate the quantity of food loss and waste of fresh fruit and vegetables arising from cosmetic standards in Europe and UK, and its associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We find few direct measurements of such losses, resulting in large uncertainties for key commodities. In the context of these uncertainties, we estimate avoidable FLW from on-farm cosmetic grade-outs of up to 4500 kt yr−1 in the UK and 51,500 kt yr−1 in the European Economic Area (EEA). Our estimates suggest over a third of total farm production is lost for aesthetic reasons, which equates to as much as 970 kt CO 2 e (UK) and 22,500 kt CO 2 e (EEA) of embedded production-phase GHG emissions annually. Examining the issue from the perspective of markets, suppliers, and consumers we establish there is an over-emphasis on superficial qualities (i.e. cosmetic appearance) of fresh produce, which leads to its unnecessary loss and waste. Using an illustrative case study, we provide potential avenues to mitigate these losses and the associated GHG emissions. Highlights • Application of cosmetic standards has resulted in substantial avoidable food losses. • Many actors across the agri-food chain enforce these standards upon farmers. • The embedded emissions of lost sub-optimal food in the EEA is as much as 22.5 Mt CO 2 e yr−1. • Quantity of avoidable on-farm losses remains uncertain due to a lack of coverage. • We propose several avenues to mitigate on-farm food loss and its embedded emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Agricultural intensification could help spare forests and increase food availability. • We assess the drivers of intensification in an agriculture-forest frontier. • We find that conservation policies helped stimulate crop and pasture intensification. • Intensification also relies on close proximity to supply chain infrastructure. • Intensification may lead to greater deforestation without improved forest governance. Abstract Deforestation associated with agricultural expansion, particularly that of extensive cattle ranching, remains a pressing challenge for sustainable development and climate mitigation efforts in South America. In response to these challenges, national and local governments, as well as private and non-governmental actors, have developed new forest conservation governance mechanisms. In addition to reducing deforestation for agricultural expansion, it is hoped that these policies may lead to the intensification of existing agricultural regions, thereby contributing to global food availability and continued rural development. The objective of this study is to understand the timing and spatial patterns of crop and pasture intensification in agriculture-forest frontiers in the context of changing conservation policies and rural development. We focus on Mato Grosso, the largest soy and cattle producing state in Brazil, which spans the Cerrado and Amazon biomes and has experienced among the highest levels of deforestation for agricultural expansion globally. Using econometric analysis of remotely sensed and agricultural survey data, we find that cropland and pasture intensification are both linked to increasing forest conservation restrictions and broader supply chain development. However, the effect of conservation restrictions on intensification is lower in regions where there is more forest remaining. While crop and pasture area dynamics are often coupled in agriculture-forest frontiers, crop intensification does not appear to have contributed to pasture intensification through animal feed production. Intensification of crop and pasture areas was associated with temporary, immediate reductions in local deforestation, but crop intensification was associated with increased deforestation over longer time periods. These results suggest that targeted investments in supply chain infrastructure in the Amazon frontier could promote intensification and relieve pressure to clear forests, but must be coupled with substantial, long-term negative incentives for deforestation, including more effective public forest governance and private zero-deforestation commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop diversification is a promising strategy to mitigate climate change through soil carbon sequestration while ensuring soil fertility maintenance and food security. Here, we assess the impact of different inter-cropping practices on soil organic carbon (SOC) and nitrogen (N) storage and stabilization under rainfed and irrigated semiarid conditions. Under rainfed conditions, an almond (Prunus dulcis Mill.) monocrop was compared with an almond inter-cropped with caper (Capparis spinosa) or with winter thyme (Thymus hyemalis). Under irrigated conditions, a mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) monocrop was compared with a mandarin inter-cropped with an annual crop rotation (including Hordeum vulgare, Vicia sativa and Vicia faba) or with a triennial crop rotation (including Vicia faba, Portulaca oleracea and Vigna unguiculata L.). The SOC and N stocks, SOC mineralization rates, water-stable aggregates and associated OC and N contents were estimated at 0–10 and 10–30 cm depth in each monocrop and inter-cropping system after three years. Contrasting effects of inter-cropping on SOC and N stabilization were found in the rainfed and irrigated systems. The combination of inter-cropping and no tillage did not affect the SOC stocks or mineralization rates at any soil depth in the rainfed system, while it significantly increased the OC and N contents within the large macro-aggregates in the subsoil. Compared to the irrigated mandarin monocrop, the mandarins inter-cropped with the annual crop rotation showed a significant increase of 10% and 18% in the topsoil and subsoil N stocks, respectively, while the SOC mineralization rates were reduced by 30% at both soil depths. On the contrary, the topsoil SOC stock in the mandarins inter-cropped with the triennial crop rotation were reduced by 38% compared to the monocrop. Significant reductions ranging between 24% and 66% were also observed in the OC and N contents associated to the macro- and micro-aggregates in the topsoil and subsoil of both crop diversifications compared to the monocrop system. Our results highlight the potential of inter-cropping rainfed woody crops with perennials for boosting SOC and N storage and stabilization. In irrigated woody monocrops, inter-cropping with annual crop rotation schemes that include two or more leguminous and reducing tillage frequency operations seems to be more appropriate in terms of SOC and N stabilization. • Inter-cropping rainfed almond trees with perennials fostered subsoil OC and N stabilization. • Inter-cropping irrigated mandarin trees with annual crops hampered SOC and N stabilization at 0–30 cm. • Incorporating legumes when inter-cropping with annual crop rotations is pivotal to foster SOC and N storage. • Minimum tillage and crop residue retention is crucial to preserve and stabilize SOC and N. • Using cover crops as green manure during the first years is pivotal to restore semiarid agricultural soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Temperature was most important regulator of plant litter decay and retention of C in soil. • Precipitation plays an interactive role with temperature. • More than ½ of litter C was lost <1 yr and only about 5–12% remained after 8–10 yr. • Soil properties did not play a discernible role in these processes. • No-till slowed plant litter decay, but only initially in arid environments. Identifying the primary regulators of plant litter decay in agricultural soils is important for understanding ecosystem function now and for managing post-harvest litter in a warmer world. We conducted a litter decay study at 11 sites in Canada and New Zealand with diverse soils and climates. We incorporated 13C-labelled barley litter into the surface 10 cm of soil and monitored amount remaining over 8–10 years; at five sites litter was also applied to the soil surface to simulate no-tillage. Our objectives were to evaluate litter decay as influenced by soil type, tillage practice, and environmental conditions, and quantify the most important factors controlling C retention in soil. Loss of C via decomposition occurred quickly – more than half was lost within 1 year and only about 5–12% remained at the end of the experiment. A double exponential decay model, based on temperature and developed from the first 5 years of the study, accurately described litter decay, but only after re-tuning using measurements from the full experimental period. Including precipitation in the model further improved its fit. Soil properties exerted minimal discernible influence on the amount of litter C remaining, implying that properties such as the amount and surface area of clay minerals, were less important than climate in limiting litter decay or enhancing retention of C in soil. Comparison of litter application treatments showed that no-till slowed decay of plant litter, but only for a short time (∼1 yr) and only in environments with a mean annual precipitation of <1000 mm. These findings have implications for the role of soils in climate mitigation. If only 10% of added plant litter C remains in soil beyond a few years, regardless of climate, residue placement, or soil type, then rates of soil gain are limited without substantive increases in residue inputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A range of agroecological practices allow to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, which makes a positive impact on climate change mitigation and soil health, but the permanence of this additional SOC storage can be questioned, in particular in a climate change context. Increased temperatures, accentuated evaporation of terrestrial water and increased atmosphere moisture content are anticipated, resulting in more frequent droughts and heavy precipitation events. Understanding the SOC dynamics and assessing the sensitivity of carbon mineralization to these climatic events is necessary to anticipate future carbon losses in terrestrial ecosystems. To this respect, it seems relevant to investigate carbon-storing soils as increased carbon mineralization induced by climate change may limit the carbon storing potential in agricultural soils. Thus, we evaluated the sensitivity of SOC mineralization to increased temperature, decreased soil moisture and drying-rewetting cycles using soils from long-term field experiments. We performed an incubation experiment on topsoil (0–30 cm) samples from temperate luvisols that had been under 20 years under conservation agriculture (CA), organic agriculture (ORG) and conventional agriculture (CON-LC) at the La Cage experiment, and under organic waste products (OWPs) applications in QualiAgro experiment, including biowaste composts (BIOW), residual municipal solid waste composts (MSW), farmyard manure (FYM) and conventional agriculture without organic inputs (CON-QA). Soil samples were incubated in the lab for 3 months under different temperature conditions (20, 28 and 35 °C) or under different moisture conditions (matric potential: pF1.5; pF 2.5 and pF 4.2) or under several dry (pF 4.2)-wet (pF 1.5) cycles (DWC). The results shown that, whatever the agricultural practices, soil moisture regime and temperature significantly affect the SOC mineralization. Overall, the DWC did not stimulate soil carbon mineralization relative to wet controls (pF1.5 and pF2.5). Whatever the soil moisture regime and temperature, specific carbon mineralization was similar between agricultural practices at La Cage, while at QualiAgro, specific carbon mineralization was lower in soils receiving organic waste products (OWPs) compared to the baseline soil. These results suggest a strong carbon stabilization by OWPs in soils as assessed by laboratory incubation experiments. Within each long-term experiment, we observed no significant difference between the carbon-storing soils (CA, ORG, MSW, FYM and BIOW) and their respective baseline soils (CON-LC and CON-QA) in the delta SOC mineralized whatever the soil moisture regime. The Q 10 also indicated no significant difference between carbon-storing soils and their respective baseline soils. These results indicate that the SOC mineralization in carbon-storing soils had a similar sensitivity to the soil moisture regime and temperature as the baseline ones. Hence, the implementation of these agroecological practices appears beneficial for climate change mitigation, even in the context of extreme climatic events. • Soil moisture regime and temperature significantly affect the carbon mineralization. • Dry wet cycles did not stimulate the carbon mineralization relative to wet controls. • Specific carbon mineralization did not differ among the three cropping systems at La Cage. • Lower specific carbon mineralization in soils receiving organic waste products at QualiAgro. • Carbon-storing soils have a similar sensitivity to climate events as baseline soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate variability affects agricultural production systems and rural communities, generating risks to food security and increasing rural poverty. Therefore, improving the capacity of rural households to adapt to climate variability has become one of the greatest challenges for international and national institutions. The objective of this study is to analyze the impact of rural households' livelihood strategies with regard to their vulnerability and adaptation to climate variability. We systematically selected 162 rural households from 10 municipalities in the department of Huila (Colombia). Households were grouped according to their livelihood strategies, using 13 variables representative of their productive characteristics. Subsequently, three indices related to climate vulnerability were determined: a. exposure (climate variability between 1990 and 2012), b. sensitivity, and c. adaptive capacity. For the latter two, the community capitals framework was used. Using the three indices above, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's proposed vulnerability index was determined. We found seven livelihood strategies: i. Cattlemen-Cocoa Farmers, ii. Livestock-Cocoa Farmers, iii. Employees-Cocoa Farmers, iv. Cocoa Farmers, v. Diversified Farmers, vi. Landlords-Cocoa Farmers and vii. Coffee Farmers. Degree of vulnerability to climate variability was related to the livelihood strategy of rural households: those best endowed with capitals and with the most diverse livelihood strategies were the least vulnerable (Cattlemen-Cocoa Farmers and Livestock-Cocoa Farmers). While it is necessary to maintain a balance between capitals in the process of adapting to climate variability in rural households, at the community level it is essential to strengthen political capital, which will make it possible to construct and reinforce strategies for adapting to climate variability. • Climate variability negatively affects all households with agricultural and livestock livelihoods in southern Colombia. • Balance capital endowments and livelihood diversification are key to adaptive capacity to climate variability. • Investment in cultural and political capital enables rural households' adaptive capacity to climate variability. • Climate actions by institutions be prioritized according to the livelihood strategies of rural households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We assessed the climate change impact on wheat production in China. • We employed the FGLS, DOLS, and D–K estimation techniques. • Temperature negatively affected wheat production in the long–run. • Precipitation contributed positively to wheat production in the long-run. • Agro–chemical input (fertilizer use) enhanced wheat production in the long–run. Northern and Southern regions are the two major wheat production belts of China. Agro–climatic resources have changed significantly in recent years, threatening staple food production in these regions. As a result, it is critical to investigate the long–term effect of climate change and agri–inputs on wheat production in China's top six wheat producing provinces (Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Jiangsu, Anhui, and Hubei) from 1995 to 2020. The estimated long-run results from the FGLS, DOLS, and D–K estimators revealed that climatic factors, specifically temperature, had a negative impact on wheat production, while precipitation had a positive impact. The findings also revealed that agrochemical inputs, such as fertilizer, increases wheat production, whereas pesticide use decreases wheat production significantly. The results from the Dumitrescu–Hurlin panel causality test showed a bidirectional causality between rainfall, fertilizer use, and cultivated area with wheat production, while a unidirectional causality association is running from labor force to wheat production. The current study provides several critical policy recommendations for China's sustainable food production through green agricultural practices and robust climate mitigation strategies. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • PARAFAC and GLM analysis are used for SOM stabilization determination. • Explanatory factors of SOM in rice fields differ for topsoil and subsoil layers. • In rich-SOM soils SOM is more humified whereas in low-SOM soils it is fresher. • SOM quality and quantity were determined by the former habitat. • Crop management influences quality and quantity of SOM vertical profile. Paddy farming can potentially sequester carbon. However, agricultural practices may alter the stability of the soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and thereby increase carbon mobilization in the topsoil and subsoil. We hypothesize that both agricultural practices and soil physical–chemical characteristics, mostly those related to the type of the parental soil where the paddy is established, play an important role in SOC stabilization and sequestration. To test this, we profiled the biochemical characteristics of soil organic matter (SOM) and the SOC concentrations in sediment cores of 10 rice fields from the Ebro Delta (Northeast Spain) representing former reclaimed habitats (i.e., peatlands, meadows, coastal lagoons, riverbanks and salt marshes). The effects of physical–chemical soil properties on SOM content were tested with Generalized Linear Models and the best models were selected using information-theoretic approach. The optical characteristics of SOM extracts were analyzed by UV–Visible and fluorescence spectrophotometry, and six fluorescence components were identified by Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC). Higher clay and lower sand content explained the greater SOM presence in topsoil while higher clay content and salinity prevailed as the main explanatory factors in the subsoil showing a positive correlation with SOM content. The results revealed a correlated gradient of SOM quantity and quality where in SOM-rich soils both the aromaticity and the humification degree were higher while in soils with lower SOM content it was fresher and more microbially derived. Current agricultural practices favored SOM humification in the topsoil while the variability in SOM quality in subsoil is attributed to the combination of soil physical–chemical characteristics (pH, conductivity and clay content) and the previous habitat's influence. This study represents a comprehensive empirical analysis on the carbon stocks in rice fields and the identification of soil physical–chemical factors, related to prior land uses, favoring soil carbon accumulation. These results may have major implications in decision-making process for climate change mitigation in vulnerable Mediterranean coastal paddies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combatting climate change has risen to the top of the international policy discourse. Effective governance necessitates the generation of concise information on the costs-effectiveness of policy instruments aimed at reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The marginal abatement cost curve (MACC) approach is a framework commonly used to summarise information of potential mitigation effort, and can help in identifying the most cost-effective managerial and technological GHG mitigation options. Agriculture offers key opportunities to mitigate GHG emissions and utilise carbon (C) sink potentials. Therefore, a number of countries have developed national agricultural MACCs in the last decade. Whilst these MACCs have undoubtedly been catalysers for the information exchange between science and policy, they have also accentuated a range of constraints and limitations. In response, each of the scientific teams developed solutions in an attempt to address one or more of these limitations. These solutions represent ‘lessons learned’ which are invaluable for the development of future MACCs. To consolidate and harness this knowledge that has heretofore been dispersed across countries, this paper reviews the engineering agricultural MACCs developed in European countries. We collate the state-of-the-art, review the lessons learnt, and provide a more coherent framework for countries or research groups embarking on a trajectory to develop an agricultural MACC that assesses mitigations both within the farm gate and to the wider bioeconomy. We highlight the contemporary methodological developments, specifically on 1) the emergence of stratified MACCs; 2) accounting for soil carbon sequestration 3) accounting for upstream and downstream emissions; 4) the development of comprehensive cost-calculations; 5) accounting for environmental co-effects and 6) uncertainty analyses. We subsequently discuss how the mitigation potential summarised by MACCs can be incentivised in practice and how this mitigation can be captured in national inventories. We conclude that the main purpose of engineering MACCs is not necessarily the accurate prediction of the total abatement potential and associated costs, but rather the provision of a coherent forum for the complex discussions surrounding agricultural GHG mitigation, and to visualise opportunities and low-hanging fruit in a single graphic and manuscript. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an increasing interest in climate change mitigation agricultural activities and the effects on carbon (C) sinks. It is essential to study, propose and implement agricultural practices to protect the environment and increase crop yields, whilst at the same time aiming to reduce agricultural emissions and increase C sequestration. Further study of these aspects is important in order to identify the best land management practices and policies to protect the environment. So with this objective in mind, the study of connectivity is an opportunity to gain insight into the sustainability of agroecosystems, due to the close relationship among connectivity, biodiversity and C storage. In fact, high connectivity values can be associated with healthy ecosystems and high levels of biodiversity, which can assure better soil protection and can favor sustainability, implying a greater soil C sequestration capacity. The measure of connectivity’s temporal variation using analysis of current connectivity (inter- and intra-compartments) and the development of risk and vulnerability maps are key facts to, on one side, identify areas most prone to habitat degradation and fragmentation, and then, on another side to establish priorities. This proposed analysis must be carried out by sectors and in a stratified way. For it, “Sector agricultural connectivity units” are proposed as a dimensionless measuring concept to implement this assessment. To establish agricultural land management schemes and programs for policy intervention at European level in order to guide the strategy to address environmental issues in the agricultural sector, we propose a set of lines of action focused mainly on three aspects: the development of National Action Plans, the establishment of Monitoring Programs, and the integration of their outcomes with the information from available databases through Big Data treatments and other analysis tools. Furthermore, to achieve this goal, the role of farmers can not be underestimated and the communication problems between farmers and scientists should be solved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary This paper explores how Climate-resiliency Field Schools involving smallholder farmers in the Mindanao region of the Philippines advance climate-smart farming practices. Using data from field observations, 86 interviews, and 13 focus group discussions from five municipalities, the research finds that cross-scale activities, including local plans and multi-stakeholder forums, and municipal budgeting processes, influence adaptation and mitigation to climate change in smallholder farming systems. Furthermore, using matrix analysis and stakeholder responses, we identify interactions, synergies, conflicts, and potential co-benefits between mitigation and adaptation, and food production practices. The analysis of climate-resiliency field school practices shows that the addition of livelihood outcomes to smallholder farming landscapes strengthen adaptation, mitigation, and food production outcomes (and vice versa). Climate-resiliency Field Schools have promoted the practice of organic farming, various systems for rice intensification, and the establishment of community seed banks. Other practices, such as soil conservation, reforestation, and agroforestry, have been used in Mindanao to maintain carbon stocks while increasing crop production. Climate-resiliency Field Schools serve as a multilevel institutional platform where farmers can access climate information, which they can use to improve farm planning (i.e., choices of crops, timing of farm preparation, and harvest). The research findings suggest that climate-smart interventions are highly location-specific, technically rigorous, involve knowledge-intensive processes, and are influenced by the knowledge and capacities of local farming communities and implementing partners. We conclude with some suggestions for the design of programs, and the types of interventions that are required to sustain and ultimately scale up efforts to enhance climate-smart agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding future climate change is crucial for securing and managing water supplies necessary for agricultural activities in China, particularly in rainfed agriculture regions. This paper evaluates the projected climate change for nine major agricultural zones in China, using ensembles of regional climate models (RCMs) simulated under the Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment-East Asia second phase (CORDEX-EA-II) framework. The simulations were conducted for two climate scenarios (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5) at a 25 km grid spacing, with three RCMs (RegCM4, REMO, and WRF) driven by multiple CMIP5 global climate models (GCMs). The study compares the RCM simulations to the driving CMIP5 and the recent CMIP6 ensembles, focusing on surface temperature, precipitation, and surface relative humidity for the present day (1981–2010), mid-future (2036–2065), and far future (2070–2099) periods. The model evaluations indicate that the GCM and RCM simulations are consistent with observations, with RCMs showing better performance than the driving GCMs. The results show that both GCMs and RCMs project increased temperature and precipitation in most agricultural zones of China in the future, with the CMIP6 ensembles projecting the largest temperature increase and the CORDEX-EA-II ensemble showing the finest spatial details. Relative humidity is projected to decrease over major rice-producing areas of South China in the CORDEX-EA-II, CMIP5, and CMIP6 ensembles. This study provides valuable information to support climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts in China, particularly in the agricultural sectors. • CORDEX-EA-II simulations demonstrate better model performance over China. • Temperature and precipitation are projected to increase in the future. • Relative humidity is projected to decrease over South China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Topsoil SOC stocks and soil structure recovered 26 years after topsoil removal. • Topsoil buried under the plough layer non-linearly lost 30–50% of SOC in 55 years. • Topsoil SOC recovery and stability of buried SOC was dependent on N fertilisation. Erosion of fertile topsoil means severe land degradation and yield loss. Here, we show that reformation of the fertile topsoil and crop yield increase is possible by good agricultural management within a few decades. Evidence relies on a unique long-term field experiment in NE Germany, where in 1964 the sandy soil (Luvisol) had been excavated to 52 cm and refilled with subsoil material of 52 cm thickness. Undisturbed trials served as controls, these were all combined with either no fertilisation, mineral fertilisation or a combined mineral and organic fertilisation. It took only 26 years until new topsoil had been formed. Its soil organic carbon (SOC) and total N stocks and the aggregate size distributions equalled that of the other treatments; SOC sequestration corresponded to 28 Mg SOC ha−1. The former topsoil buried below the plough layer lost 30–50 percent of its SOC during 5 decades in a non-linear manner. We conclude that our current agricultural tools can restore degraded arable land rather fast and contribute to climate change mitigation through a significant SOC sequestration as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• MAOM-C content was modeled for arable fields with different management. • Organic fertilization, crop rotation, and soil texture define MAOM-C content. • A POM-C/MAOM-C ratio indicator was developed and tested. • This indicator contains information on MAOM-C saturation deficits. • POM-C/MAOM-C ratio indicators might support climate mitigation strategies. Soil organic matter (SOM) is indispensable for soil health and, in the context of climate change, is considered a significant CO 2 sink. Improving agricultural management to increase long-term soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks for mitigating climate change requires tools that estimate short and long-cycling SOM pools. In this study, we analyzed changes in fast-cycling particulate organic matter (POM) and slow-cycling mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM) induced by common management practices, i.e., fertilization and crop rotation in topsoils from 25 Central European long-term field experiments. When relating MAOM-C contents to recent MAOM-C saturation levels, estimated sequestration potentials were only met in coarse-textured soils under appropriate agricultural management or fine-textured soils under extreme organic fertilization. Soil texture, organic fertilization, and below-ground OC inputs through root exudates and root biomass were decisive for estimating MAOM-C, allowing for calibration of a mixed-effects model (Nakagawa's: marginal R2 m = 0.6, conditional R2 c = 0.89). While the models containing soil texture and organic fertilization parameters can be validated and generalized (R2 = 0.43), the below-ground OC input predictor substantially decreases the generalizability of the validated models (R2 = 0.14). According to quantile regression models, we estimate the average difference in MAOM-C concentration between well-managed and control site (without organic fertilization) topsoils to 4.1 mg g−1 soil. In dependence on the soil bulk density, this amounts to 1.38 – 1.84 t ha−1 MAOM-C stocks or 5.06 – 10.1 t ha−1 CO 2 -equivalents. POM-C was difficult to predict (R2 = 0.28), presumably due to strong POM dynamics. The POM-C / MAOM-C ratio can inform on the effects of agricultural practices in before/after management change comparisons. Under increasing SOC concentration, an increasing POM-C / MAOM-C ratio indicates that the effects of organic fertilization do not transfer to real effects on long-term SOC sequestration. Because MAOM-C depends on soil texture, this ratio is also a covariate of soil texture, limiting it for comparisons between sites with different textures. However, our data indicate that agricultural long-term field experiment soils constantly approximate MAOM-C saturation when the POM-C/MAOM-C ratio is >0.35. This ratio might be used as a management goal to prevent organic over-fertilization and N loss, especially on coarse-textured soils. Thereby, the POM-C / MAOM-C ratio can help to optimize SOC management and sequestration on agricultural soils and support climate change mitigation strategies in Central Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We evaluated on-farm management and site predictors for soil organic carbon storage. • Soil texture strongly predicted soil organic carbon sequestration potentials. • Conservation management practices were overall of less importance. • Future carbon farming schemes need to properly account for biophysical constraints. Although conservation agriculture practices evidently facilitate the build-up of soil organic carbon (SOC), the sequestration potential of arable soils is strongly mediated by edaphic attributes; so far, their interplay is not well understood. Deciphering these drivers is however important to correctly estimate SOC storage potentials in arable soils and to derive effective strategies for the implementation of successful measures. By using an on-farm approach, we conducted a pairwise comparison of 21 conventional and highly innovative 'pioneer' farms across a wide range of arable soil types and evaluated the leverage of site attributes and management practices such as crop diversity, reduced tillage, organic fertilization, cover cropping and inter cropping on the SOC sequestration potential. While most pioneer management practices proved beneficial for the sequestration of SOC – particularly cover cropping and crop diversity – our results clearly show that soil texture was the most significant shaping factor. Coarse-textured soils had a significantly higher potential for SOC accrual compared to medium- and fine-textured soils. The initial SOC content also had a significant effect on prevalent sequestration potentials. Based on the fact of a clear predominance of natural site conditions over management impacts in enhancing SOC storage of arable soils, we call for a critical discussion of carbon farming schemes. As similar efforts and costs of implementing carbon farming measures will have distinctive carbon gains, dependent on environmental constraints beyond farmers' influence, we advocate for strategies harmonizing both activity- and results-based approaches to maximize the ecological effectiveness and the spatial dissemination of soil health innovations. Carbon farming schemes thus need reconsideration within the state-of-the-art scientific framework of carbon saturation behaviour in order to properly account for biophysical constraints when formulating soil-related climate change mitigation policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate policies may have adverse geographically unequal socio-economic impacts that, if left unaddressed, may hamper their implementation. This paper examines factors explaining rural-urban perceptions of the effects of climate policy on agriculture and rural areas. The paper adds to current knowledge by jointly analysing socio-economic factors and factors describing the distinct role geographical locations play in shaping these perceptions. We conduct a novel statistical analysis utilising a large preference survey of the Norwegian adult population spatially matched at the municipality level with indexes capturing centrality and the relative importance, and, hence, vulnerability of agriculture to effects of climate change. Our analysis does not identify a principal conflict between the goals of climate policy, rural policy, and agricultural policy across geographical locations. Conflicts along the rural-urban gradient arise around the priority given to the three policy areas, and the concrete impact of climate mitigation measures on rural areas. Centrality more than agricultural properties explains the formation of resistance to policies. The policy process should therefore acknowledge rural concerns, and climate mitigation options should be more carefully designed to avoid further rural-urban polarisation. • We study the effects of climate policy on agriculture and rural areas in Norway. • 'Places' seem more important than 'people' in explaining rural-urban perceptions. • Overall climate, agriculture, and rural policy objectives are compatible. • Differences in the priority between these policy areas cause a rural-urban divide. • Acceptable climate policies must take rural concerns into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]