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Abstract: Efficiency of fertilizer N is becoming increasingly important in modern agricultural production owing to increasing food requirement and growing concern about environments. However, there is almost no study regarding its long-term efficiency in wheat and maize cropping systems. Long-term (15 years) experiments involving wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) rotations at five field sites with various soil and climate characteristics in China were used to determine the nitrogen (N) efficiency, including the physiological efficiency, recovery efficiency and N mass balance of soil–plant systems in response to different fertilization treatments. The present study consisted of nine treatments: unfertilized, N, phosphorus, potassium, straw and manure or their combinations. The contribution of N fertilizers to wheat yield was higher than to maize and suggested that wheat could be given priority over maize when determining N application rates. Uptake of 1kg N produced 35.6kg of wheat grain and 39.5kg of maize grain. The deficit of N in soils without applied N ranged from 40 to 103kgNha−1 year−1, while N surpluses in soils with applied N fertilizers ranged from 35 to 350kgNha−1 year−1. The apparent accumulated N recovery efficiency (NREac) varied widely from 4% to 90%: unbalanced fertilization and other soil limiting factors (such as aluminium toxicity) were associated with low NREac. In the treatments of combination of N, phosphorus and potassium with normal application rates, the average of NREac in four out of five sites reached 80%, which suggested that best management of N fertilizers could recover most of N fertilizers applied to soils. The results will be helpful to understand the long-term fate of N fertilizers and to optimize the N fertilization for agricultural practices and environment protection. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]