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• Combined with field test and numerical simulation, the rock damage characteristics around peripheral hole are fully analyzed. • The influence of explosive spacing, blasthole spacing and smooth blasting layer thickness on different damage indexes of rock mass is analyzed, and the influence of boundary conditions is discussed. • Considering the influence of explosive spacing and blasthole spacing, a mathematical model is established firstly to predict the rock damage range and applied to engineering practice. • The research method in this paper provides a solution to similar engineering problems. The control of overbreak in blasting excavation is a significant technical challenge and a subject of extensive research in the field of engineering. This study examines the damage characteristics of the surrounding rock in a tunnel section through blasting test and numerical simulation conducted as part of the San Gavan diversion tunnel project in Peru. The orthogonal test of peripheral holes under the influence of explosive spacing, blasthole spacing and smooth blasting layer thickness was designed to analyze the characteristics of rock damage under different parameter combinations and the influence of various factors on rock damage. Based on the USBM formula, this paper deduces a mathematical model considering blasthole spacing and explosive spacing to predict the rock damage range. The main conclusions are as follows: on the tunnel section, the average damage range of vault and arch springer is slightly larger than that of spandrel and haunch. For a single blasthole, the rock damage range in different sections is: explosive > air > stem, and the degree of rock damage at the bottom of blasthole is the highest. Smooth blasting layer thickness has a significant effect on rock damage rate on the side of non-reflect boundary. When smooth blasting layer thickness is 45 cm and 55 cm, the boundary conditions of numerical model have a significant effect on the rock damage. The reflection of blasting stress wave on the free surface leads to the further increase of rock damage range. The blasthole spacing and explosive spacing have a significant effect on rock damage range on the side of non-reflect boundary, and both show a negative correlation. Based on the prediction model of rock damage, the combination of peripheral hole parameters satisfying the standard is obtained, which provides guidance for blasting design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind farm is the cheapest renewable energy resource (RER) in the world, however, the reliability improvement is a key for the future of this power plant. A specially issue is the overhead line interconnection, a weak point, even, a double circuit, the last projects have included modern equipment to mitigate the failure impact in the system as phasor measurement unit (PMU) and Intelligent Electronics Devices (IED); for the dynamic response and protection system. In this paper, a comprehensive dynamic model for the analysis in a Peruvian power plant, located in the north of Perú, with the most recent model based fault analysis and fault tolerant, focusing on overhead lines maximum disconnection time for RER technology interconnection. The remainder of this paper is organized in a tutorial manner with a Matlab code and DigSilent simulation, it allows the same results from the stability study, however faster than traditional methodology and with high accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Mercury use in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has captured global attention and concern for decades. Policy makers and development practitioners routinely promote awareness campaigns and technical assistance to address mercury use in ASGM; however, this focus obscures other barriers that stand in the way of addressing mercury emissions from the sector. Focused on the town of Relave, in the Ayacucho Region of Southwestern Peru, this paper examines the perspectives and practices of some of the community members who are involved with ASGM activities. It highlights their own views of the challenges related to ASGM and explores the ways in which they are addressing these challenges. Despite their efforts, this paper reveals that there are two key barriers to controlling mercury use in Relave, which lie outside of the communities' lack of awareness and technological capabilities. These include the deprioritization of mercury use and pollution among community members as compared to other community and public health concerns and inequities in the supply chain that position miners and mineral processors with little to no control over the distribution, use, and emissions of mercury. The implications of these findings for policy decisions, regulatory schemes, and development initiatives are not only relevant to Peru, but are also significant for other countries committed to addressing mercury emissions from ASGM. Highlights • Small-scale gold miners are not aware of the exact mechanisms of mercury exposure. • Small-scale gold miners have challenges and priorities outside of mercury emissions. • The supply chain poses barriers to addressing mercury use in small-scale mining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental governance often requires fulfilling different objectives at the same time, as environmental but also economic and social objectives of different actors and on different scales. That means, it needs to address (potential) goal conflicts. This challenge of how to achieve policy coherence is currently discussed regarding the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). It also touches on questions of policy design in general, on how to avoid contradiction and foster synergies between interdependent policy tools. This paper presents a new interdisciplinary methodology to design synergetic and sustainable policy mixes. It contributes a new approach for policy design processes addressing goal conflicts of sustainable development. The methodology uses cross-impact balance analysis (CIB), a qualitative form of systems analysis: A policy-interaction model is built by iterating between desk research and expert consultation regarding different objectives, policies to achieve them, and directed interactions between these policies. Analyzing the model allows identifying alternative policy mixes, which optimize different objectives at the same time, are free of internal contradictions and use synergies between policies. The methodology provides easy operationalizations for synergy and consistency and allows assessing sustainability performance and robustness of policy mixes. The methodology is suitable for both ex post evaluation of status quo and ex ante evaluation of alternative policy mixes. The methodology is applied to the water management in the Lurín river basin, Peru. We argue that the approach is transferable to further environmental issues and to SDG interactions on the policy level and supports policy coherence for sustainable development. • We present a new methodology to design and evaluate policy mixes. • The methodology addresses conflictive environmental management issues. • It uses cross-impact balances (CIB), a qualitative network analysis. • The methodology provides easy operationalizations of synergy and consistency. • It allows assessing sustainability effects and robustness of policy mixes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• SDG15 indicators of forest extent are complemented with those of forest quality. • Indicators include naturalness, forest structure, fragmentation, and connectivity. • High quality forests were lost faster than forest extent during 2002–2021. • Indicators of forest quality improve SDG15 reporting. The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goal 15, termed Life on Land, is monitored by indicators and sub-indicators that largely deal with forest extent. In countries with structurally complex and species-rich forests, indicators and sub-indicators of forest quality are also needed to effectively monitor and sustain ecological integrity. The goal of the paper is to demonstrate the use of complementary sub-indicators of forest quality for SDG15 reporting and conservation planning. Our objective is to apply these sub-indicators within Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru and evaluate spatial patterns and trends over time as a basis for revealing how the results complement the official indicators of forest extent and forest extent in protected areas in informing conservation. The sub-indicators of forest quality quantify naturalness, riparian forest, forest structure and integrity, forest fragmentation, and forest connectivity. We quantified change during 2000–2021 in these metrics and highlighted insights gained from the complementary sub-indicators of forest quality relative to the official sub-indicators based on forest extent, Forests covered about 60–70% of the forested ecoregions in each country in 2000 and this proportion declined in all three countries by approximately 4% by 2021. Only a subset of the forested area was of high forest quality. Natural forests represented about 40% of forests in Colombian and Ecuador in 2000 and 50% in Peru. Those proportions declined: by 6.3% in Colombia, 6.5% in Ecuador, and 3.4% in Peru. Even less of the forested area was Core Forest in 2013; less than 28% among countries. During 2013–2021, the proportion of forest that was Core decreased by 2.3% in Colombia, 4.5% in Ecuador, and 6.7% in Peru. Connected Forests were about 17–22% of forests among the countries in 2013 and declined 10.4% in Colombia, 1.6% in Ecuador, and 3.8% in Peru by 2021. Forests high in forest structure were 10–18% of forests in 2012 among the countries and increased by 1.1–2% by 2021. Forests of high integrity were 7–13% of forests in 2012 and increased by1.4–2% by 2021. Riparian forests represented less than about 7–9% among the countries and declined by 0.6–1.3% by 2021. Thus, the area of highly quality forest across the countries was substantially less than full forest extent and high-quality forest declined at a higher rate than forest extent during 2000–2021. Forest structure and integrity did increase slightly over this time period. Our results for trends in forest naturalness, riparian association, within stand structure, fragmentation, and connectivity demonstrate how consideration of forest quality provides a much stronger basis for evaluating success in meeting SDG15 targets than consideration of forest extent alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Mountains are diverse regions but often far removed from mainstream development. • Development pathways can help actors to revitalise mountain development. • The study compares development pathways in Peru Nepal and Kyrgyzstan. • Different theories are applied to fully capture the dynamics of pathways. • A pathways analysis reveals important sustainability and social equity implications. Mountains are dynamic landscapes that are home to rich natural and human heritage. However, climatic variability, globalisation and increasing ecomomic integration are making these landscapes more fragile with implications for present and future development. Using a pathways lens, we examine development trajectories in mountains and relate these to environmental and social-economic change currently taking place. We analyse and compare pathways in three case studies in Peru (Andes); Nepal (Himalayas); and Kyrgyzstan (Tien Shan). The paper highlights that development pathways in fragile mountain regions may be shifting in new directions, but because they emerge out of complex socio-environmental and historical contexts, there are also social risks associated with the articulation of future pathways, particularly in terms of social equity and sustainability. Building on different pathway approaches with their various strengths and weaknesses, this study examines the role of human agency and power, the role of historical and present context and feedbacks between social and ecological features in shaping future development pathways of mountain landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conservation of archaeological heritage is of major importance for preserving the scientific, ethnographic and artistic values of past cultures. Once archaeological sites are exposed after being buried for centuries, they are subjected to natural hazards, which should be studied with up-to-date techniques. Moreover, conservation works are primarily focused on aesthetic aspects or on solving localized problems. In earthquake-prone areas, it is of extreme importance to carry out structural analysis studies for assessing the actual behaviour of archaeological constructions, and for proposing adequate intervention measures. This paper presents an extensive study on structural behaviour of archaeological building remains in Peru, based on in-situ non-destructive testing as well as on numerical approaches. The case of the Chokepukio Archaeological Site is presented, which was built between 1000 and 1450 AD in the Pre-Columbian era, with a mixed masonry of stone units and earthen mortar. The paper begins with a comprehensive description of the historical, architectural and structural aspects of the archaeological site. The possibility of applying operational modal analysis tests is then explored with reference to a representative wall of Chokepukio. The results of the experimental field campaign are used to develop calibrated finite element models of the wall, and to indirectly estimate mechanical characteristics of the masonry. Basing on the investigations performed, potential failure mechanisms are identified for the wall and validated by pushover analysis. Finally, the mechanisms are evaluated through kinematic limit analysis, to proceed with the seismic assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Projects with more transdisciplinary principles in research design and implementation make more diverse contributions. • Projects employing more transdisciplinary elements can leverage more diverse mechanisms of change. • By leveraging diverse contributions and mechanisms, projects have greater potential influence across more impact pathways. • Theory of change and the Quality Assessment Framework are comprehensive and complementary tools for theory-based evaluation. More and more effective research is needed to help address complex sustainability problems. Many research approaches have adopted more transdisciplinary characteristics as a way to improve effectiveness. However, empirical evidence of the extent to which and how transdisciplinary research design and implementation contribute to (more) effective scientific and social outcomes remains limited. This paper reports a comparative analysis of five research-for-development projects implemented in Peru and Indonesia to: characterize the extent to which projects employed transdisciplinary principles; assess the extent to which and how intended project outcomes were achieved; analyze the relationship between transdisciplinary research approaches and outcomes; and provide lessons from the experience of using a theory-based approach to evaluate a set of case studies. Our analysis demonstrates that the projects employing more transdisciplinary principles in their design and implementation make more diverse contributions and have a greater breadth of influence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A methodology to assess food, energy, and water security is proposed. • The approach links availability and accessibility on a sub-national scale in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia. • The approach can be used to assess multiple development priorities simultaneously. • Application of this method can be at multiple spatial scales and institutional levels. • The results are relevant for the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals. The food-energy-water (FEW) nexus has emerged over the past decade to build understanding around interlinked resources as a tool for achieving sustainable development. Various frameworks developed to implement nexus thinking however, do not always consider both access and availability of resources in a security perspective. Moreover, indices that calculate FEW measures on a national scale may not adequately describe regional variation within a country. To further understanding of these coupled natural resources and tools for development, this paper presents an approach to quantify FEW security and highlights cases in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia where national statistics leave out important regional variation. The outcome is an integrated approach to quantify security measures that can be implemented at multiple spatial scales and institutional levels. This approach can not only provide insight into FEW security in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia but can also be an effective tool for assessing multiple development priorities simultaneously throughout the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scale and pace of land tenure change for agricultural development, often known as 'land grabbing' or 'global land rush,' are historically unprecedented. Control over millions of hectares of land has shifted over the past decade for the production of food, fiber, and biofuel. However, the rapidly growing body of research on land tenure change provides few rigorous assessments of deforestation across multiple countries with distinct biophyisical and socioeconomic characteristics. In this paper, based on spatial boundaries of land transactions (LTs) in Cambodia, Ethiopia, Liberia, and Peru, we investigate their association with deforestation using a pixel-based matching approach. Our findings suggest that the context, size, and distribution of LTs and the associated deforestation patterns vary substantially across the four countries. Land tenure change significantly accelerates deforestation in Cambodia and Liberia, but such acceleration is insignificant in Ethiopia. In Peru, we observe the opposite trend, where areas adjacent to LTs experience higher deforestation than areas within. Our analysis reveals how patterns and outcomes of LTs are linked to country characteristics and contexts, and suggests that sweeping generalizations about positive or negative consequences of LTs on deforestation and possibly other socioenvironmental outcomes need to attend more closely to specific patterns and drivers of LTs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rural poor in developing countries often save and borrow in the non-formal financial sector. Providing financial education and access to formal savings products can help to improve their livelihoods. Nonetheless, financial education has traditionally been delivered on a not-for-profit basis. This paper experimentally evaluates the impact of a free in-person financial education program for rural women in Peru, implemented by a for-profit microfinance institution along with the marketing for a new microsavings account. We find very high take-up of the free financial education program (57.7% participation in at least one session), and using data collected 3 to 6 months after the intervention we observe a significant increase in the familiarity with and trust in the implementing financial institution. Also, we observe a significant positive impact on formal savings with the implementing financial institution, but no significant negative impact on savings with other formal financial institutions. These findings suggest that free financial education provided by for-profit financial institutions, paired with financial products tailored to the target population, could be a viable alternative to promote formal savings among the poor. However, we do not observe a significant short-term impact of the program on credit, income, assets, consumption, poverty, or female empowerment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to estimate CO 2 emissions from Peru's domestic air transport and how much they would be reduced if the network, currently centered around Lima's airport, was organized differently. Results show that, in 2014, Peruvian domestic air transport was responsible for emitting approximately 657,446 MT of CO 2. This is equivalent to US$4.7 million, US$60.33 per one-way flight or 8.7 cents per km. If only the less-polluting aircrafts were used, CO 2 emissions would be reduced by 2.8%. If instead of having to use Lima's airport as a hub there were direct connections among the country's seven busiest airports, yearly emissions would be reduced by 3.8%. A large part of the savings in this scenario (45%) would come from eliminating LTO cycles. Both scenarios combined would save the environment 40,893 MT of CO 2 per year (6.2%). • In 2014, Peruvian domestic air transport emitted 657,446 MT of CO 2. • This is equivalent to US$4.7 million, US$60.33 per one-way flight or 8.7 cents/km. • If only the less-polluting aircrafts were used, emissions would be reduced by 2.8%. • If there were direct connections among the seven busiest airports, emissions would be reduced by 3.8%. • Both scenarios combined would save the environment 40,893 MT of CO 2 per year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Expert framings led some previously excluded actors to have their voices heard. • Common discursive framings led to new alliances. • Not all actors have access to technical and scientific knowledge. • Interests that cannot be expressed in expert terms remain excluded. Abstract In the last twenty years, participatory forums have been increasingly used to manage water basins around the world. The implementation of participatory forums has sought to prevent and overcome conflicts by bringing together a multiplicity of stakeholders in joint efforts to deliberate, achieve mutually agreed upon decisions, and distribute limited water resources. Different literature streams have evaluated the benefits and challenges of participatory forums in practice, such as the difficulties some forums have had when confronting existing power structures. Separately, research on water governance has paid particular attention to the ways in which expert discourses are used by traditionally powerful actors to exclude less powerful others. This paper draws from the literatures on participation and discourses in environmental governance to empirically investigate how expert discourses may empower or disempower certain actors in four basin councils – two in Peru and two in Brazil. Through qualitative thematic analysis of 116 interviews and observation notes, we specifically investigate the extent to which expert discourses in these basin councils help empower previously excluded actors. Our findings indicate stakeholder interests that are not, or cannot, be expressed within the frame of expert discourses are often marginalized. This suggests participation has made it possible for some previously excluded actors to have a voice, yet their potential influence is seemingly confined to a restricted space beyond which their voices will have little effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a case study in assessment of erosion hotspots in an Andean watershed. To do this, we made use of an interface called Geospatial Modelling of Soil Erosion (GEMSE): a tool that integrates Geographical Information Systems (GIS) with the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model. Its advantages are: (i) it is independent of any special GIS software used to create maps and to visualize the results; (ii) the results can be used to produce response surfaces relating outputs (e.g. soil loss, runoff) with simple inputs (e.g. climate, soils, topography); (iii) the scale, resolution and area covered by the different layers can be different among them, which facilitates the use of different sources of information. The objective of this paper is to show GEMSE''s performance in a specific case study of soil erosion in La Encañada watershed (Peru) where the hillslope version of WEPP has been previously validated. Resulting runoff and soil loss maps show the spatial distribution of these processes. Though these maps do not give the total runoff and soil loss at the watershed level, they can be used to identify hotspots that will aid decision makers to make recommendations and plan actions for soil and water conservation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Liberal reform programmes in developing countries were not designed with the need to extend electricity supplies to rural areas. This paper focuses on the Peruvian experience, examining the impact of electricity reform policies on the characteristics of rural electrification. In rural areas, electrification levels have traditionally been the lowest in the country – making them less or non-profitable for private firms. Only in 2002 did the government introduce a specific Rural Electrification Law, which was intended to promote electrification within the context of a liberalised market. This paper draws upon an analysis of both this piece of legislation and stakeholder interviews, indicating that there exists a need to look further into the evolving relationship between the private and public sectors and how it affects the rural poor. This study forms part of the RESURL international research project on renewable energy for sustainable rural livelihoods in developing countries, funded by the UK Government''s Department for International Development (DfID). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Initiatives led by grassroots actors achieve better social-ecological outcomes. • Multi-specialization of activities promotes positive sustainability transformations. • Initiatives with cross-sectoral and -scalar partnerships are more successful. • Place-based initiatives promote sustainable pathways and transformative change. • Grassroots empowerment is key for external actors seeking to promote sustainability. The Amazon has a diverse array of social and environmental initiatives that adopt forest-based land-use practices to promote rural development and support local livelihoods. However, they are often insufficiently recognized as transformative pathways to sustainability and the factors that explain their success remain understudied. To address this gap, this paper proposes that local initiatives that pursue three particular pathways are more likely to generate improvements in social-ecological outcomes: (1) maintaining close connections with local grassroots, (2) pursuing diversity in productive activities performed and partnership choices, and (3) developing cross-scale collaborations. To test these ideas we collected and analyzed observations of 157 initiatives in Brazil and Peru, applying a combination of quantitative and qualitative analyses. Our results show that initiatives maintaining groundedness in representing the interests and concerns of local actors while partnering with other organizations at multiple scales are more likely to develop joint solutions to social-ecological problems. Partnerships and support from external organizations may strengthen and enhance local capabilities, providing a platform for negotiating interests and finding common ground. Such diversified pathways demonstrate the power of local actors to transcend their own territories and have broader impacts in sustainability objectives. Our findings highlight the need to make governmental and non-governmental support (e.g., financial, technical, political) available according to local needs to enable local initiatives' own ways of addressing global environmental change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work introduces a computational tool, PETP V2.0.0 , which allows calculation and analysis of reference evapotranspiration through empirical formulas from: Thornthwaite, Hargreaves, Christiansen, Penman Monteith, Penman modified, Turc, Jensen-Haise, Stephens-Stewart, Linacre, Papadakis, Blaney and Criddle, Serruto, Priestley-Taylor, Makkink, Valiantzas, Garcia-Lopez, Turc (annual), Coutagne (annual), and Radiation. In addition, the software has tools for the analysis of ETo (selection of the best results for the study site) and export of results, among others, which are explained in detail in this paper. PETP V2.0.0 has been developed using the Basic programming language, under the Integrated Development Environment Visual Studio 2010, which allows to synthesize manual labor, as it allows to carry out calculations in an automatic and accurate way under different calculation conditions. The ETo parameter is important in calculating water demand, carry out hydrological studies, environmental studies and others, which is why this new computational tool is implemented. [Display omitted] • This paper reports on a computer program and interface to compute and analize ETo applying different calculation methods. • This new computational tool is aimed for use in academic situations and professional works. • PETP 2.0.0 was compared to other software obtaining similar results. • PETP V2.0.0 has been tested in various regions in Latin America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Two novel profit scoring models were built using the TabNet algorithm. • Profit scoring model using XGBoost and all the features has the best performance. • SHAP framework was used to interpret the Multilayer Perceptron profit scoring models. • Monthly interest rate and Maximum days delinquent are the most significant features. • Profit scoring models allow financial inclusion. Credit unions are growing microfinance institutions that base their lending decisions on the judgment of their credit analysts. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to design 6 profit scoring models, capable of predicting the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of credit applications, using the multilayer perceptron, XGBoost and TabNet algorithms and thus serve as a support tool for the credit analyst. For this purpose, the least correlated and most independent features were selected from the dataset coming from a Peruvian credit union and composed of 36 402 observations. Then, the hyperparameters of all algorithms were tuned. Finally, the profit scoring models that considered only the selected features were compared to which considered all features. As results, it was obtained that the most significant features that determine the IRR of a loan are the effective monthly interest rate and the member's maximum or average days delinquent. The results obtained from the performance evaluation of the profit scoring models suggested the XGBoost as the best algorithm. In addition, the model that used the XGBoost algorithm and considered all the features had the best performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates if the excitement about school-based financial education is warranted. First, relying on recent experimental evidence, the paper takes stock of the impact of financial education programs aimed at reaching children and youth. Second, it complements existing studies by focusing on the potentially negative unintended effects of these programs. Relying on data from a large-scale randomized controlled trial (RCT) in Peru, this paper investigates whether financial education programs have spillover effects on academic outcomes or if they widen initial inequalities due to heterogeneous treatment impacts. While delivery models that incorporate a mandatory course requirement yield large and robust impacts on financial literacy, voluntary after-school programs yield meager effects. These gains do not come at the cost of pervasive effects on the probability to pass a grade. Moreover, the impact of school-based financial education seems to be very inclusive, as treatment effects tend to be uniform across different sub-samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Environmental and structural monitoring was performed in a historical adobe church. • Results show env. influence in structural properties at different time-scales. • Seasonal effects cause variations of up to 8% in natural frequencies. • Shorter-term influences were also verified causing variations of up to 3.8%. • Daily results show a delayed effect of the env. conditions in structural response. The analysis of the evolution of modal properties and its relationship with changes in environmental properties (i.e. ambient temperature and relative humidity) is of high importance since their effects along time can mask the influence of structural damage. While structural monitoring studies to assess the relationship between modal parameters and environmental conditions are abundantly available for modern materials constructions (i.e. concrete or steel), very few studies are reported for adobe buildings. The present paper focuses on the study of the short and long-term structural behavior of existing adobe buildings through the long-term monitoring of ambient vibration and environmental conditions. With this purpose, the paper describes in detail the case study of the San Pedro Apostol Church of Andahuaylillas located in Cusco, inside the Andean region of Peru, a 16th-century church considered as a masterpiece of South American baroque architecture. The paper starts with a historical, architectural, and structural description of the case study. Then, it describes the implementation of a long-term monitoring system of ambient vibration and environmental variables, as well as the results of almost one year of continuous monitoring process. Finally, the obtained results of natural frequencies are correlated with ambient parameters, demonstrating different timescale influences in the modal properties due to daily and seasonal variations of the environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] This paper adapts the DEA method to develop a regional competitiveness index. [•] The competitiveness of all the regions of Peru is measured and ranked. [•] The developed index assesses the strengths and weaknesses of every region. [•] Results reveal that coastal regions are the most competitive in the country. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• A moderate risk of failure status is corresponded to 62.3 failure index (FI). • The developed method is implemented on the water system of the City of El Pedregal in Peru. • This research provides insights for infrastructure managers in the aspects of when to intervene. • The eight factors that cause the degradation and failure of water infrastructure were characterized to develop the Monte Carlo Simulation Model. The aging and degradation of water supply systems are deemed serious problems that cause pipeline failure and breakages. The risk of watermains failure assessment is one of the key strategies that can pinpoint pipes at risk and maintain their sustainability. This research paper showcases a novel method for deterioration modeling in conjunction with quantifying the water network's failure index (FI). The methodology builds on various algorithms, computational intelligence, and interactions between numerous factors. It involves developing two intelligent models; the first is the Monte Carlo Simulation Model (MCSM) that is designed to estimate the deterioration indices (DIs) of watermains through intricate iterative simulations. The produced indices are then streamlined and channeled to the fuzzy engine to develop the second model, namely, the fuzzy inference system model (FISM). After designing the model's configuration, the DIs are mapped to 84 fuzzy-if-then-rules that are in turn mapped to output values; finally, the fuzzy consolidator generates one crisp number that represents the watermain's FI. The developed method is implemented on the water system of the City of El Pedregal in Peru. The results indicate a moderate risk of failure status, which corresponds to 62.3 FI. Moreover, the efficacy of this method is verified against the multiple linear regression (MLR) method and proved to be sound. This research provides insights for infrastructure managers in the aspects of when to intervene, what to maintain, replace, or rehabilitate, and how to focus their constrained funding on the most deserving assets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present and discuss the response of the ionospheric F-region in the American sector during the intense geomagnetic storm which occurred on 24–25 October 2011. In this investigation ionospheric sounding data obtained of 23, 24, 25, and 26 October 2011 at Puerto Rico (United States), Jicamarca (Peru), Palmas, São José dos Campos (Brazil), and Port Stanley, are presented. Also, the GPS observations obtained at 12 stations in the equatorial, low-, mid- and high-mid-latitude regions in the American sector are presented. During the fast decrease of Dst (about ∼54nT/h between 23:00 and 01:00UT) on the night of 24–25 October (main phase), there is a prompt penetration of electric field of magnetospheric origin resulting an unusual uplifting of the F region at equatorial stations. On the night of 24–25 October 2011 (recovery phase) equatorial, low- and mid-latitude stations show h′F variations much larger than the average variations possibly associated with traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) caused by Joule heating at high latitudes. The foF2 variations at mid-latitude stations and the GPS-VTEC observations at mid- and low-latitude stations show a positive ionospheric storm on the night of 24–25 October, possibly due to changes in the large-scale wind circulation. The foF2 observations at mid-latitude station and the GPS-VTEC observations at mid- and high-mid-latitude stations show a negative ionospheric storm on the night of 24–25 October, probably associated with an increase in the density of molecular nitrogen. During the daytime on 25 October, the variations in foF2 at mid-latitude stations show large negative ionospheric storm, possibly due to changes in the O/N2 ratio. On the night of 24–25, ionospheric plasma bubbles (equatorial irregularities that extended to the low- and mid-latitude regions) are observed at equatorial, low- and mid-latitude stations. Also, on the night of 25–26, ionospheric plasma bubbles are observed at equatorial and low-latitude regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Peru is a country with a strategic location for water resources, however, like many other countries, it is facing water supply and demand problems due to demographic densification growth, and pollution problems due to agricultural and industrial usage. In order to address these problems, integrated water resource management approach has been introduced. It includes the coordinated development, management and policies of water resource usage towards environmental protection, conservation and sustainability. However, this approach has not been fully developed within the Peruvian water management and policies structure. Due to Peru''s complex social, economic, geographic and multicultural aspects, there are many things to consider when managing water resources and making effective policies. This paper shows how integrated water resources management approach should be developed and implemented in Peru, the importance of a holistic coordinated framework, and how environmental technologies and informatics are needed for addressing environmental problems in the Peruvian aquatic ecosystem. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Pisco-Chincha earthquake hit the western shore of Peru on 15 Aug 2007. More than five hundred people perished and numerous residential structures made of masonry and adobe collapsed. Many buildings were severely damaged by settlement due to liquefaction. In general, engineered reinforced concrete structures experienced less damage compared with structures constructed with traditional construction practice. This paper presents a case study on a two-story RC building in Ica, Peru which was severely damaged during the earthquake. Field observations suggest that causes of the structural failure are: (1) short column effects resulting from masonry infill walls; (2) an overloaded second floor; and (3) insufficient stirrups in the columns. To test these hypothesized causes of column failure, analytical models based on measured section dimensions and reinforcement bar configurations from the field investigation are used. Nonlinear response history analyses are carried out with ground motions recorded at a seismic station located 500 m from the reference structure. The analysis results show that the partial infill walls and a lack of shear reinforcement were the leading causes of the column failures. The results also show that the overloaded columns do not significantly influence the seismic demand of the reference structure. Stirrups in the columns mainly affect seismic capacity and have relatively no effect on seismic demand for the ground motion that the building was subjected to. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines 19th-century Peruvian heights from the early republican period to the end of the guano era (1820–1880). Analyzing male and female prisoner heights from the Lima penitentiary, we find that the physical stature of the lower classes stagnated throughout the period. In spite of the substantial profits generated by Peru''s chief export product, guano, these revenues apparently did not filter down to benefit ordinary laborers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Advancing the understanding of spatiotemporal aspects of air pollution in the urban environment is an area where improved methods can be of great benefit to exposure assessment and policy support. This paper explores the potential of a technique known as kriging with external drift (KED) to provide high resolution maps of fine particulate matter for a downtown region of Cusco, Peru. There were three stages in this research. The first was to conduct a pilot level monitoring campaign to investigate ambient, regional, and street-level air pollutant concentrations for particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10) and carbon monoxide (CO) in the Province of Cusco. The second was to compile observations within a geographic information system (GIS) in order to characterize the proximal effect of the local transportation network, elevation, and land use classifications on PM2.5. Third, regression, ordinary kriging and kriging with external drift were used to model PM2.5 for three select time periods during a 24-h day. Statistical evaluations indicate kriging with external drift resulted in the strongest models explaining 64% of variability seen with morning particle concentrations, 25% for afternoon particles, and 53% in evening particles. These models capture spatial and temporal variability for air pollution in Cusco. These variations seem to be influenced, to varying degrees, by elevation, meteorological conditions, spatial location, and transportation characteristics. In conclusion, combining GIS, meteorological data and geostatistics proved to be a complementary suite of tools for incorporating spatiotemporal analysis into the air quality assessment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Swarms of barchan dunes are common in arid environments. Unlike immobile or slowly moving dunes whose stratigraphy can be used to reconstruct paleoenvironmental changes, the high migration rate of barchans seems to prohibit their use as geoarchives. In this paper, a possible use of barchan swarms for paleoenvironmental reconstructions is presented. The approach is based on dune migration. In a case study based on 500 dunes in the Pampa de Jaguay aeolian transport corridor in coastal southern Peru, middle to late Holocene changes in the supply of aeolian material are inferred from calculating the time of dune initiation at the coastline. Limitations posed by the assumptions underlying this approach are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A key issue in understanding tropical forest disturbance is what drives farmers practicing customary shifting cultivation to clear crop fields in old-growth forest over secondary forest fallows. These farmers typically hold a stock of secondary forest fallows that can be used for cropping in rotation, built up over time in part through initial clearing of old-growth forest. In this paper we examine the most recent field cleared by 2046 indigenous and folk peasant households in 138 communities along three major rivers of the Peruvian Amazon to identify the factors that influence their choice of field location (upland or lowland forests) and type of forest cleared (old-growth or secondary). Data are drawn from a large-scale household and community surveys and remote sensing analysis of Landsat and ArcGIS Worldview imagery. We find that rates of old-growth forest clearing are low and that such land quickly returns to secondary forest cover: about 31% of households cleared forest on the upland (terra firme) but only 8% of households cleared upland old-growth forest. Regression modeling results identify the contextual, historical and household factors that influence the choice to clear upland forest (old-growth or secondary). Access to lowland for floodplain agriculture is associated with lower rates of old-growth forest clearing and higher educational attainment of household heads with increased clearing. Analysis of household land portfolios points to the importance of the size of land holdings, the degree of upland orientation, and the number and age of fallows held at the time of the forest clearing decision in clearing old-growth forest on the upland. Measures to reduce old-growth forest loss around Amazonian communities are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Peruvian Bay scallop (Argopecten purpuratus) fishery in Independencia bay (Southern Peru) is being subjected to great inter-annual variability in catch and effort. This is mainly due to the ENSO (El Niño-Southern oscillation)-caused changes in the population dynamics of the stock, which greatly proliferated during the El Niño events 1983 and 1998. As a consequence “gold rush” conditions arose and resource users profited from a multi-million dollar export business. After the El Niño booms, the system normalized and catches dropped to normal levels. This boom and bust situation has made a rational management of the resource difficult, and annual catches are considered unpredictable, just like the stochastic environment. This paper attempts to provide a catch forecast model to enable the scallop fishery to better prepare for and adapt to the ever-changing conditions of the scallop stock. The model proposes that annual catches are mainly the result of the recruitment success of the incoming new cohort, which is a function of adult spawning stock size and the number of settlers to the sea bottom. The latter is considered a function of the larval mortality rate and the temperature-dependent development time to the settlement stage, while the former is proportional to the catches taken over the spawning period (November–April). Using monthly catch and temperature data for the period 1983–2005, we constructed a regression model to predict the catch for the year after the recruitment period (July–June) as a function of (a) the catch during the spawning period (as a proxy for spawning stock biomass) and (b) the settlement factor that was derived from the mean water temperature over the spawning period, an assumed instantaneous larval mortality rate, and the relationship between temperature and larval period to settlement. The resulting multiple regression (R 2 =0.930) proves that both factors can explain a large part of the inherent variability of the data. The model reveals that annual catches greatly depend on the spawning stock size when temperatures are low, while this factor decreases in importance with increasing temperatures, at which the settlement factor is much more influential instead. These findings are relevant for the stock management: at low temperatures, the maintenance of a large enough spawning stock over the spawning period (November–April) is decisive for the yield of the post-recruitment fishing period thereafter, while at increasing spawning temperatures, spawning stock size is of decreasing importance for determining the yield. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Advocates of land-titling programs in developing countries posit that these programs lead to a multitude of benefits, including health improvements. This paper presents the results of a child health survey of several Lima communities after various time exposures to Peru''s urban land-titling program. The results provide suggestive evidence that improved property rights increase children''s weight but not their height, which is consistent with previous work on the topic. However, titles also appear to raise children''s risk of being overweight or obese, implying that the observed weight gain is not necessarily an improvement in nutritional status. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper analyzes the impact of the exchange rate volatility on the performance of the Peruvian economy using financial information from 163 non-financial listed firms. We find evidence that, for firms holding dollar-denominated debt, investment decisions are negatively affected by real exchange rate depreciation. The reasons behind this result are: (i) the high degree of liability dollarization and currency mismatch that create the conditions for a balance sheet effect and a financial stress in the aftermath of a currency depreciation; (ii) the strong bank-lending channel that follows and reinforces the balance sheet effect; (iii) the domestic demand shrinkage that affects severely firms’ sales; and (iv) the relatively small and poorly diversified export sector. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Water quality failure is a long-standing problem worldwide, causing illness, poisoning, disease outbreak, and claiming human lives in the urban communities. Potable water can be compromised due to a myriad of physical, operational, and environmental factors, such as contaminants intrusion into water pipelines, leaching, disinfection byproducts, chemical or microbial permeation, and pollution. The prediction of potable water quality has seldom been researched, while a novel automated model that offers a proactive approach can be developed to promote sustainability-based strategies. This paper elaborates the impacts of the aforementioned factors on the quality of potable water using the Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and risk analysis techniques. The ANN model was developed based on historical data obtained from the water distribution networks (WDNs) of the City of El Pedregal, Peru. The data were streamlined and fed to the neural network to be trained. Subsequent to multiple iterations via the scaled conjugate gradient algorithm, the optimized performance was generated and passed to the trained network to forecast the water quality failure in WDNs. The model performance was tested and validated against different statistical error terms and indicators. The mean absolute error and root-mean-squared error in the ANN failure prediction were computed as 0.08 and 0.15, whereas the average validity of the network was generated to be 92%. Based on the trained neural network, the degree of influence of each factor was determined through implementing a sensitivity analysis. It was found that water quality, water pressure, and operational and maintenance practices had the maximum influence on the risk of failure in water infrastructure. Policy makers and managers can benefit from the proposed model since ANN is already trained, by predicting water quality whenever new data become available. Prediction results will indicate the level of risk (low, moderate, high) to the inhabitants, thereby preemptive measures can be taken to avoid any illness or disease outbreak. • Prediction of water quality via artificial neural network and risk analysis model. • The model assessed water contamination and pipe sustainability with 92% average validity. • Sensitivity analysis assessed the influence of model's factors on the risk of failure. • Water quality and its related environmental factors had the highest influence rate. • Pipe diameter, and pipe thickness had the least influence rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the relationship between international trade of avocado and the related virtual water trade over the period 2000–2016. Using a Physical Trade Analysis, we show that commercial and virtual water trade grew rapidly moving almost hand-in-hand in the years taken into account: in parallel with a remarkable increase of international trade of avocado from 0.4 Mt in 2000 to 1.9 Mt in 2016, the global virtual water trade of avocado increased from 408 Mm3 to 2238 Mm3 over the same period. The analysis emphasizes a large disparity between developed and developing countries, with the former being net importer of water and the latter large net exporter. In particular, large avocado-related water flows move from countries already under chronic water stress such as Mexico, Peru and Chile towards more water-rich regions such as US, Japan, Canada and the European Union. As a consequence, the overexploitation of water underlying the avocado trade flows may end up worsening environmental conditions in many relatively poor countries in which the export of avocado is often regarded as an important source of economic growth. • We study virtual water trade of avocado using Physical Trade Analysis over 2000–2016. • Avocado is mainly exported from water-poor to water-rich countries. • Large water flows move from Mexico, Peru and Chile to US, Japan, Canada and the EU. • Intra-European trade shows large re-exports from Spain and the Netherlands. • Export of avocado may worsen water scarcity in many relatively poor countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a rural exemplar house built in San Francisco de Raymina (a high Andean village 3700 masl) in southern Peru that integrates passive and sustainable solar heating techniques. A climatic analysis of this village was carried out using measurements of meteorological parameters recorded throughout a whole year. The annually averaged temperature, relative humidity and horizontal daily solar energy were 8.3 °C, 73.1% and 5.2 kWh/m2, respectively. The temperatures outside and inside the most rural dwellings are almost the same, so they do not offer any protection specially, during nights when the temperature can reach values below zero. The thermal behavior of the house was modeled with the m2m tool, and an experimental validation was carried out. With the use of m2m, it was possible to create an energy balance during the month of June 2014 (the winter cold and dry season) to determine the energy loss/gain contributions by each wall and to assess how air exchanges (the flow rates of which were deduced using an inversion approach, as they could not be directly measured) between the exterior and interior influence the thermal behavior of the whole house. Infiltration contributed approximately 48.6% of the daily energy losses, while the main solar gains were from the skylights (21.8%) and the adobe walls, which absorbed heat during the day and released heat at night. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mining companies are under public scrutiny for their impacts on society. Previous studies have discussed aspects of the drivers of social conflicts and the factors that lead communities to grant or withdraw SLO; however, no previous research has attempted to bring together the range of conflicts in a single paper. The purpose of this research was to identify the factors that influence the main drivers of social conflict and how these factors must be aligned to help a company earn SLO instead of losing it. This qualitative research consisted of a case study analysis of two mining companies that operate in Peru and also included insights drawn from in-depth interviews and the emerging literature on SLO. The findings indicated that there were different factors for each driver of social conflict and that a company's strategic actions with regard to these factors could help it either earn or lose SLO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Irrigation expansion driven by a growing global food demand is threatening the sustainability of scarce water resources. An exemplar is the Ica Valley in Peru which has experienced significant agricultural transformation over the last three decades with uncontrolled abstractions leading to over-exploitation of the Ica-Villacuri aquifer. This paper critically assesses the impacts of agricultural expansion on the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources in the Ica Valley. We apply a combination of spatial analysis and irrigation modelling by farming type (large and small-scale), followed by a multi-criteria assessment on irrigation water use. Historical trends in cropped area were analysed using Landsat satellite imagery to identify agricultural expansion and the changing composition between large and small-scale farms. The blue water footprint (WF blue) for croplands was calculated distinguishing between surface and groundwater abstractions for eight disaggregated geographical zones within the Ica Valley. The economic benefits of water consumption were assessed using the water productivity indicator, and the environmental sustainability of water resources spatially evaluated using a monthly blue water sustainability index and adapted version of the groundwater debt. The analyses showed that the groundwater footprint accounts for 87% of the total WF blue (483 Mm3) with 286 Mm3 groundwater consumed under unsustainable conditions (exceeding groundwater recharge). The highest water productivity (2.4–5.4 sol/ton) occurs in zones with intensive groundwater abstractions and where most large-farms are located, but it is also where the sustainability issue is most acute. Modelling showed that based on existing climate conditions and cropping patterns, irrigated agriculture is locally unsustainable throughout the valley, with the exception of small-scale farming in the peri-urban and middle valley areas. Around 10% of total aquifer recharge results from small-scale irrigated farming, whereas recharge from large scale farming is negligible. The greatest impacts occur in zones dominated by large-scale farms, where a period of 3.7–5.9 years is estimated to be needed to replenish water resources consumed by agricultural production. There is thus an urgent need to manage water resources more effectively and promote more sustainable use of water to protect both traditional and agro-export agricultural practices as well as allocations for urban water supply and the environment. Image 1 • Export-oriented agricultural expansion is exerting severe pressure on water resources. • Groundwater footprint accounts for nearly 90% of total irrigation demand (536 Mm3). • Large-scale farming comprises 83% of the groundwater footprint in the Ica Valley. • About 68% of the annual groundwater footprint exceeds groundwater renewability. • Around 18% of total aquifer recharge results from small-scale irrigated farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Exclusive use of liquefied petroleum gas saved participants 5.1 h per week. • Participants with LPG cooked more hot meals per day, improving quality of life. • Highly valued time savings were used for chores, leisure, and agricultural work. • This study provides quantitative evidence that cooking with LPG saves time. Efforts to promote clean cooking through adoption of clean-burning fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are often based on the idea that near-exclusive use of LPG could lead to health improvements. However, benefits beyond health, such as time savings, could be more tangible and meaningful to LPG users. This study investigated the effect of an LPG intervention on time spent cooking and collecting fuel, using objective measures of stove temperatures combined with self-reports under conditions of near-exclusive LPG use. We also investigated the perceived value of any time savings and potential economic and quality of life implications. We analyzed data from the Cardiopulmonary outcomes and Household Air Pollution trial in Puno, Peru, a randomized controlled trial with 180 participants assessing exposure and health impacts of an LPG stove, fuel, and behavioral intervention. Surveys conducted with 90 intervention women receiving free LPG and 90 control women cooking primarily with biomass assessed time spent cooking and collecting biomass fuel and use of time savings. Cooking time was objectively measured with temperature sensors on all stoves. Qualitative interviews explored perceptions and use of time savings in more depth. Intervention women spent 3.2 fewer hours cooking and 1.9 fewer hours collecting fuel per week compared to control women, but cooked on average 1.0 more meals per day. Participants perceived time saved from LPG positively, reporting more time for household chores, leisure activities, and activities with income-generating potential such as caring for animals and working in fields. This paper suggests that the benefits of LPG extend beyond health and the environment. LPG use could also lead to economic and quality of life gains, through increased time for work, rest, and consumption of hot meals, and reduced arduous biomass fuel collection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to explore the relationship between Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Social Capital (SC) in the mining industry. The qualitative analysis was complemented by the insights provided by interviews with key informants as well as the emerging literature on the intersection of SC and CSR. The findings revealed a framework with four quadrants to understand how CSR proposed by a mining company impacts SC, as well as the best practices to move from negative CSR to positive CSR that can generate strong SC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2010, as a result of the increased attention to quinoa as a highly nutritious crop and increased international demand, the acreage and production of quinoa expanded rapidly in the Andes region. Global demand and price increases create opportunities for smallholder Andean farmers but also concerns on the environmental impacts of quinoa acreage expansion and the changing quinoa production practices of smallholder farmers. In this paper, we assess the sustainability performance of smallholder quinoa production in the Junín region in the central highlands of Peru. We use primary data from a two-round survey among 367 smallholder farmers in the Junín region and secondary data from Ecoinvent and LCFoods databases. We use a combination of a life cycle assessment to assess the various environmental impacts of quinoa production; a data envelopment analysis to link the environmental performance of quinoa production with the economic performance, and quantify the eco-efficiency of individual farms; and a fractional regression model to examine the heterogeneity in eco-efficiency across farms. We find that conventional quinoa production creates a global warming potential of 7.82 kg CO 2 -equivalent per kg of protein, which is comparable to the environmental impact of organic quinoa production and production of other grain crops but much below the impact of production of rice and food from animal origin. Also, the eco-efficiency among smallholder quinoa producers is low, on average 18.2%, and that excessive use of mineral fertilizers and a switch to mechanical threshing explains this low eco-efficiency. We conclude that quinoa, with its specific nutritional characteristics, can make a contribution to a more sustainable global food production but that attention is needed to the soil fertility management practices of smallholder Andean farmers in order to reduce the environmental impact and increase the efficiency of smallholder quinoa production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an analytical framework to identify and understand grassroots water governance practices, which we call 'rooted water collectives' (RWC). RWCs can be multi-scalar organizations that engage in common property resources management or multi-scalar social movements that advocate for common property resources governance. The framework, which we open for discussion, scrutinizes (1) the extent to which 'rooted water collectives' are 'grounded' in the sense they address locally perceived water control problems and resort to water-context embedded meaning, values, identities, belonging and vernacular knowledge; (2) their internal decision-making dynamics; and (3) their effectiveness in achieving impact at multiple scales. It also considers five contextual factors that enable and constrain RWC development. RWC can be deployed as a conceptual lens, but also as an empirical manifestation constituting the object and subject of research. It differs from wide-spread top-down-implemented participatory water management approaches and common property resources management research, in the importance it gives to politics, advocacy and multi-scale social movements. The framework is illustrated with a cursory analysis of four cases: irrigators' federations in Peru; the 'new water culture' movement in Spain; collective irrigation in oases in North Africa; and loosely structured networks of irrigation water users in Cambodia. • Rooted water collectives (RWC) is a conceptual lens and an empirical manifestation. • Empirically, RWCs govern water resources directly and through federations • Water collectives' structure, internal democracy and effectiveness differ strongly. • Federated water collectives can foster collective management and influence policies. • The notion constitutes an alternative to participatory water management approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]