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Aiming at the reutilizing wastewater for algal growth and biomass production, a saline water rejected from reverse osmosis (RO) facility (salinity 67.59 g L-1) was used to cultivate the pre-adapted green microalga Chlorella vulgaris. The inoculum was prepared by growing cells in modified BG-11 medium, and adaptation was performed by applying a gradual increase in salinity (56.0 g L-1 NaCl and 125 ppm FeSO4.7H2O) to the culture in 200 L photobioreactor. Experiments using the adapted alga were performed using original-rejected water (ORW) and treated rejected water (TRW) comparing with the recommended growth medium (BG-11). The initial salinity of ORW was chemically reduced to 39.1 g L-1 to obtain TRW. Vertical photobioreactors (15 L) was used for indoor growth experiments. Growth in BG-11 resulted in 1.23 g L-1, while the next adaptation growth reached 2.14 g L-1 of dry biomass. The dry weights of re-cultivated Chlorella after adaptation were 1.49 and 2.19 g L-1 from ORW and TRW; respectively. The cellular oil content was only 12% when cells grown under control conditions verses to 14.3 and 15.42% with original and treated water, respectively. Induction of stress affected the fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) profile and the properties of the resulting biodiesel. The present results indicated that induction of stress by high salinity improves the quality of FAMEs that can be used as a promising biodiesel fuel.

Introduction Vitamin B12 (VitB12) deficiency rarely manifests with visual symptoms. Optic nerve damage in VitB12 deficiency is thought to be via degeneration. However, optic neuritis, though infrequent, has been reported secondary to VitB12 deficiency. Material and methods We conducted a systematic review of all the reported cases of VitB12 deficiency with optic nerve involvement in Pubmed, Cochrane, and Google Scholar any date up to September 6, 2020. We have discussed the findings and compiled the available information on ophthalmological manifestations of VitB12 deficiency. We aim to provide a unified knowledge about the evidence related to types of optic neuropathies reported to date secondary to VitB12 deficiency. We also present a case of bilateral optic neuritis secondary to VitB12 deficiency. Presentation of case We present a 29-year-old previously healthy male with progressive, painful, bilateral, but asymmetric visual deterioration for forty-five days. A detailed history, examination, and laboratory workup were carried out. He was diagnosed as having optic neuritis secondary to VitB12 deficiency. He showed partial improvement with the replacement of VitB12. Conclusion We suggest promptly identifying and replacing VitB12 in patients with optic neuritis with proven VitB12 deficiency to prevent permanent damage to the optic nerve. Patients with VitB12 deficiency should have a baseline fundoscopic exam to rule out subclinical optic nerve damage. Moreover, patients who present with visual disturbances should be screened for VitB12 deficiency, especially the vegan population., Highlights • B 12 deficiency can present with optic neuropathy as an initial manifestation. • B 12 deficiency-induced optic neuropathy may be reversible if identified timely. • In patients with visual disturbance, B12 levels should be checked with a fundus exam. • A subclinical optic neuropathy should be ruled out in B12 deficient patients.

A growing body of research has indicated a role for B vitamins in depression, with some previous studies suggesting that B vitamin status in patients with depression can impact on antidepressant response. Here we aimed to investigate B vitamin plasma concentrations in medicated patients with depression (n ​= ​94) compared to age- and sex-matched healthy controls (n ​= ​57), and in patients with depression after electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in a real-world clinical setting. Our results show that nicotinamide (vitamin B3), N1-methylnicotinamide (vitamin B3 metabolite), and pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP; vitamin B6) concentrations were significantly reduced in patients with depression compared to controls. The Cohen’s d effect sizes for nicotinamide, N1-methylnicotinamide, and PLP were moderate–large (−0.47, −0.51, and −0.59, respectively), and likely to be of clinical relevance. Functional biomarkers of vitamin B6 status (PAr index, 3-hydroxykynurenine: hydroxyanthranilic acid ratio, 3-hydroxykynurenine: xanthurenic acid ratio, and HKr) were elevated in depressed patients compared to controls, suggestive of reduced vitamin B6 function. Over 30% of the patient cohort were found to have low to deficient PLP concentrations, and exploratory analyses revealed that these patients had higher IL-6 and CRP concentrations compared to patients with PLP levels within the normal range. Treatment with ECT did not alter B vitamin concentrations, and B vitamin concentrations were not associated with depression severity or the therapeutic response to ECT. Overall, reduced plasma PLP, nicotinamide, and N1-methylnicotinamide concentrations could have wide ranging effects on pathways and systems implicated in depression. Further studies are required to understand the reasons why patients with depression present with low plasma B vitamin concentrations., Highlights • Plasma vitamins B3 and B6 are reduced in depressed patients versus controls. • Reduced B3 and B6 is likely to be clinically relevant (moderate-large Cohen’s d). • 32% of depressed patients had low/deficient pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP; B6) levels. • Low PLP in depressed patients was associated with high IL-6 and CRP levels. • Treatment with a course of ECT had no effect on plasma B vitamin concentrations.

Bone health is genetically determined in 75%–80% of cases. However, studies of the associations with polymorphisms show different results depending on the populations analyzed, probably due to interactions with external factors, including nutritional factors, of which the most important are calcium and vitamin D. Vitamin D receptor polymorphisms have been associated with changes in bone mineral density, showing different responses according to the intake of calcium and vitamin D supplements. Other polymorphisms, related to vitamin B and vitamin K, play a lesser role.

Yeast based spreads (YBS) such as marmite and vegemite, made from leftover brewer’s yeast extract are one of the world’s richest source of B vitamins. We evaluated symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress scores (DASS) in participants who consume or do not consume YBS. 520 participants completed a survey consisting of 70–94 questions relating to the consumption of YBS, dietary and lifestyle habits and mood symptoms of DASS. Parametric analysis co-varying for gender, diet, supplement use, soy milk and alcohol consumption and history of psychiatric disorders including depression and anxiety were utilized to analyse the results. A significant improvement was noted in anxiety and stress but not depressive symptoms in those consuming YBS. Furthermore, those who consumed vitamin B12 fortified YBS showed even greater improvement in stress symptomology. Vitamin B supplementation appears to be an important additive supplementary source to improved stress and anxiety in the general adult population.

On behalf of the HELENA study group: et al., [Objectives]: To determine dietary patterns (DPs) and explain the highest variance of vitamin B6, folate, and B12 intake and related concentrations among European adolescents., [Methods]: A total of 2173 adolescents who participated in the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence study met the eligibility criteria for the vitamin B intake analysis (46% boys) and 586 adolescents for the biomarkers analysis (47% boys). Two non-consecutive, 24-h, dietary recalls were used to assess the mean intakes. Concentrations were measured by chromatography and immunoassay testing. A reduced rank regression was applied to elucidate the combined effect of food intake of vitamin B and related concentrations., [Results]: The identified DPs (one per vitamin B intake and biomarker and by sex) explained a variability between 34.2% and 23.7% of the vitamin B intake and between 17.2% and 7% of the biomarkers. In the reduced rank regression models, fish, eggs, cheese, whole milk and buttermilk intakes were loaded positively for vitamin B intake in both sexes; however, soft drinks and chocolate were loaded negatively. For the biomarkers, a higher variability was observed in the patterns in terms of food loads such as alcoholic drinks, sugars, and soft drinks. Some food items were loaded differently between intakes and biomarkers such as fish products, which was loaded positively for intakes but negatively for plasma folate in girls., [Conclusions]: The identified DPs explained up to 34.2% and 17.2% of the variability of the vitamin B intake and plasma concentrations, respectively, in European adolescents. Further studies are needed to elucidate the factors that determine such patterns., HELENA study received funding from the European Union’s Sixth RTD Framework Programme (Contract FOODCT-2005-007034). Additional support from the Spanish Ministry of Education (AGL2007-29784-E/ALI), Axis-Shield Diagnostics Ltd (Oslo, Norway), Abbot Científica S.A. (Spain). This analysis was also supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (JCI-2010-07055) with the contribution of the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER). The first author is supported by a grant from the Spanish Carlos III Health Institute: RD08/0072/0025 (Red SAMID: Maternal, Child Health and Development Research Network).

Introduction: A high percentage of infants are fed with infant formulas. The aim of this study was to assess compliance with Technical Sanitary Regulations on the manufacture of Spanish infant formulas, and analyse their compliance with recommendations relating to nutritional composition and the Dietary Reference Intakes for infants. Materials and methods: A total of 31 formulas were analysed, of which 18 were infant formulas, 10 follow-on formulas, and 3 growing-up milks. The European Technical Sanitary Regulations, the Spanish Dietary Reference Intakes and the Institute of Medicine of the United States and Canada were used for the assessment of compliance and adequacy. Results: The energy and macronutrient content of analysed infant formulas is placed in the middle of the range indicated in the Technical Sanitary Regulations, and meets the recommended amounts. However, most micronutrients such as phosphorus, calcium, retinol, vitamins D, E, C, B6, B12, thiamin, riboflavin, and folate are at the lower limit of the Technical Sanitary Regulations. However, the recommended consumption of infant formulas exceeded the Dietary Reference Intakes for vitamins E, C, retinol, vitamin B and folate, and vitamin B12 for follow-on formulas. Conclusions: Infant formulas are within the reference values of the European Technical Sanitary Regulations in terms of energy and macronutrients, but we believe that the level of micronutrients should be reviewed, based on current scientific data on infant requirements and possible adverse effects. Resumen: Introducción: Un porcentaje elevado de lactantes son alimentados con fórmulas infantiles. El objetivo fue valorar el cumplimiento de la Reglamentación Técnico-Sanitaria (RTS) en la fabricación de fórmulas infantiles españolas y analizar el grado de adecuación a las recomendaciones de composición nutricional y a las recomendaciones de ingesta diaria para lactantes. Material y métodos: Se analizaron 31 fórmulas infantiles: 18 de inicio, 10 de continuación y 3 de crecimiento. Para la valoración de cumplimiento y su adecuación se utilizó la normativa europea de la RTS, las Ingestas Dietéticas Recomendadas (RDI) para la población española y las del Institute of Medicine de Estados Unidos y Canadá. Resultados: El contenido de energía y macronutrientes de las leches infantiles analizadas se sitúa en el centro del margen indicado en la RTS y se adecua a las cantidades recomendadas. No obstante, la mayoría de los micronutrientes —tales como fósforo, calcio, retinol, vitamina D, E, C, B6, B12, tiamina, riboflavina y folatos— se sitúan en el límite bajo de la RTS. Sin embargo, la cantidad recomendada de leche de inicio superaba las RDI en vitamina E, C, retinol, vitaminas del grupo B y folatos, y de vitamina B12 para las de continuación. Conclusiones: Las leches infantiles se encuentran dentro de los valores de referencia de la normativa europea de la RTS en cuanto a energía y macronutrientes; sin embargo, creemos que sería necesario hacer una revisión para los micronutrientes, basándose en datos científicos actuales de los requerimientos del lactante y sobre sus posibles efectos adversos.

Background/PurposeVitamin B12 and iron deficiencies lead to macrocytosis [mean corpuscular volume (MCV) ≥ 100 fL] and microcytosis (MCV 12.6 μM), and serum GPCA positivity, respectively. Patients with both vitamin B12 and iron deficiencies had a significantly higher frequency of Hb deficiency, abnormally elevated blood homocysteine level, and serum GPCA positivity than healthy control subjects (all p values

In this mini-special issue on cancer, we learn how DNA editing enzymes can accelerate the development of cancer and we discover some remarkable effects of the chemotherapeutic agent, 5-fluorouracil, on the immune system. We also discuss a study revealing the continuing problem of vitamin B deficiencies in children in developing countries, and we determine how to distinguish two near-identical forms of necrotizing fasciitis.

Vitamin B 12 deficiency is common among the elderly, and the institutionalized elderly seem to be particularly at risk. Food-cobalamin malabsorption due to the inability to release vitamin B 12 from food is a more common cause of vitamin B 12 deficiency in the elderly than pernicious anemia. Clinical manifestations are highly variable and often subtle and nonspecific. The classical finding of macrocytic anemia may not be present even in the presence of a neuropsychiatric disorder. Diagnosis of vitamin B 12 deficiency, however, is not straightforward because laboratory tests have limitations. Although vitamin B 12 replacement is safe and without side effects, prompt treatment is required to reverse the damage, especially cognitive impairment and neurological deficit, before it becomes irreversible. There is no recommendation on universal screening for vitamin B 12 deficiency in the elderly. Nonetheless, provided that deficiency is more prevalent in the elderly, symptoms are difficult to recognize. Vitamin B 12 replacement is safe and effective, but prompt recognition and treatment of deficiency is required; more liberal testing for vitamin B 12 status may be warranted.

Vitamins are chemical compounds necessary for homeostasis, as their absence contribute to various diseases. The recommended intake of vitamins is dependent on age and sex. The intake levels for pregnant and nursing mothers also vary. It is also important to note that interaction between vitamins and other compounds can result in overdose. Fruits, vegetables, nuts, and grains are rich natural sources of vitamins. Other sources include dietary supplements that contain not only single vitamins but also combinations of individual vitamins. This chapter provides general information about the structure of vitamins and their effects on human health.

The interaction between vitamin B1 and DNA was studied with differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) at the bare and DNA modified MWCNTPE. The differential pulse voltammograms of vitamin B1 showed that peak potentials shifted to a more negative value and peak currents decreased with the addition of DNA, indicating the dominance of electrostatic interactions. The combining constant (β) and combining number (m) of DNA–mVB1 were determined too. The work has been supplemented by an UV spectral study.

At the end of the first week in Cuba, the Mission members have examined patients in Havana and Pinar del Rio and have visited their homes at the latter city. Then they learn about a less common form of the disease with spinal cord involvement or myelitis, first reported in the city of Santiago de Cuba. The presentation is typical of subacute combined degeneration secondary to vitamin B 12 , or cobalamin, deficiency.

During World War II, the writings of a Scottish military physician, who was a prisoner-of-war of the Japanese after the defeat of Singapore, revealed previous epidemics of blindness and peripheral neuropathy among thousands of soldiers and civilians who suffered from limited diets. In those cases, the typical symptoms of Cuban blindness were reported, including the presence of cecocentral scotomata, as well as peripheral neuropathy symptoms, such as burning feet and even involvement of the spinal cord in a minority of cases.

Publisher Summary Vitamins are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds, are generally not synthesized in the body, and are required in catalytic amounts to maintain growth, reproduction and homeostasis by participating in several metabolic pathways. They are divided into fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K and water-soluble B-complex and C vitamins. This chapter discusses the metabolic functions of many of these vitamins. The chapter emphasizes and recapitulates the functions of vitamins A, E, thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, cobalamin, folic acid, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, and ascorbic acid. Clinical aspects of hyper- and hypovitaminosis for each of these are also discussed in the chapter. Vitamin deficiency is caused by nutritional inadequacy, or may result from malabsorption, effects of pharmacological agents, and abnormalities of vitamin metabolism or utilization in the metabolic pathways. Excessive intake of vitamins A and D produces hypervitaminosis. The chapter also discusses the importance of vitamin A in vision, mucus secretion, maintenance or the integrity of differentiated epithelia and of the immune system, growth, and reproduction.

American internists George Richards Minot (1885–1950) and William Parry Murphy (1892–1987) are most remembered for their Nobel Prize-winning development of liver therapy as an effective treatment for pernicious anemia in the late 1920s. Clinical improvements occurred in conjunction with improvements in hematological indices and could be sustained for many years with continued liver therapy, well beyond the previous life expectancy of such patients. Importantly, patients with relatively mild neurological dysfunction from subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord also improved, demonstrating, for example, significant improvements in gait. However, patients with more severe neurological dysfunction showed at best slow and limited improvement, although neurological progression was apparently arrested with treatment.

Because socioeconomic factors (SEFs) may influence dietary quality and vitamin intakes, this study aimed to examine associations between socioeconomic factors and folate and vitamin B12 intakes as well as their related biomarkers in the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence study. Vitamin intakes were obtained from two 24-hour recalls in 2253 participants (47% males). Vitamin B biomarkers were assessed in a subsample of 977 participants (46% males). Socioeconomic factors were assessed by questionnaire, and 1-way analysis of covariance and linear regression analysis were applied. For males and females, mean intakes of folate were 211.19 and 177.18μg/d, and for vitamin B12, 5.98 and 4.54μg/d, respectively. Levels of plasma folate, red blood cell folate, serum B12, and holotranscobalamin were 18.74, 807.19, 330.64, and 63.04nmol/L in males, respectively, and 19.13, 770.16, 377.9, and 65.63nmol/L in females, respectively. Lower folate intakes were associated with several SEFs, including maternal and paternal education in both sexes. Regarding folate biomarkers, lower plasma folate intakes were associated with single/shared care in males and with lower paternal occupation in females. Lower vitamin B12 intakes were associated with almost all the studied SEFs, except paternal occupation in both sexes. In females, when considering vitamin B12 biomarkers, lower plasma vitamin B12 was associated with lower maternal education and occupation, and lower holotranscobalamin was associated with lower maternal education and lower paternal occupation. In conclusion, from the set of socioeconomic determinants studied in a sample of European adolescents, maternal education and paternal occupation were more consistently associated with folate and vitamin B12 intakes and biomarkers concentrations. © 2014 Elsevier Inc.

This article discusses the molecular, biochemical, and physiological roles of biotin (vitamin B 7 ). Biotin serves as an essential cofactor for five enzymes that fix carbon dioxide (use free bicarbonate) in order to synthesize intermediates that are crucial to intermediary metabolism. The clinical findings of frank biotin deficiency include a scaly red skin rash distributed around the eyes, nose, mouth, and perineal orifices. In adults, depression, lethargy, hallucinations, and paresthesia of the extremities are prominent neurologic symptoms; in infants, the most striking neurologic findings are hypotonia and developmental delay. Frank deficiency is rare; marginal deficiency is much more common.

Infantile tremor syndrome (ITS) is a rare clinical disorder characterized by coarse tremors, anaemia and regression of motor and mental milestones in children of around one year of age. Exact incidence is not known. In India, it accounts for 0.2 to 2 % of paediatric hospital admissions (1-2% in 1960s, 1.1 % in 1975-77 and 0.2% in mid-1990s) [1]. Improvement in nutritional status, living conditions and better weaning practices could explain the reducing incidence rates over the years. It has been primarily reported from India and South East Asia and has also been reported from other developing countries in Asia and Africa [2]. Various nutrient deficiencies (e.g. Vit B12, Magnesium, Zinc, Vit C etc.) have been found to be associated with ITS. Other causative theories include viral encephalitis and degenerative processes.

This review describes how computational methods have contributed to the held of cobalamin chemistry since the start of the new millennium. Cobalamins are cobalt-dependent cofactors that are used for alkyl transfer and radical initiation by several classes of enzymes. Since the entry of modern electronic-structure calculations, in particular density functional methods, the understanding of the molecular mechanism of cobalamins has changed dramatically, going from a dominating view of trans-steric strain effects to a much more complex view involving an arsenal of catalytic strategies. Among these are cis-steric distortions, electrostatic stabilization of radical products, the realization that nucleotide units can serve as polar handles, and the careful design of the active sites, with polar residues in the radical enzymes and non-polar residues in the transferases. Together, these strategies explain the enigmatic Co-C bond cleavage necessary for catalysis by these enzymes. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Celiac disease is an immune-mediated disease, triggered in genetically susceptible individuals by ingested gluten from wheat, rye, barley, and other closely related cereal grains. The only treatment for celiac disease is a strict gluten-free diet for life. This paper presents a systematic review of the scientific literature on the safety of pure oats for individuals with celiac disease, which historically has been subject to debate. Limitations identified within the scientific database include: limited data on long-term consumption, limited numbers of participants in challenge studies, and limited reporting about the reasons for withdrawals from study protocols. Furthermore, some evidence suggests that a small number of individuals with celiac disease may be intolerant to pure oats and some evidence from in vitro studies suggests that an immunological response to oat avenins can occur in the absence of clinical manifestations of celiac disease as well as suggesting that oat cultivars vary in toxicity. Based on the majority of the evidence provided in the scientific database, and despite the limitations, Health Canada and the Canadian Celiac Association (CCA) concluded that the majority of people with celiac disease can tolerate moderate amounts of pure oats. The incorporation of oats into a gluten-free diet provides high fiber and vitamin B content, increased palatability, and beneficial effects on cardiovascular health. However, it is recommended that individuals with celiac disease should have both initial and long-term assessments by a health professional when introducing pure oats into a gluten-free diet.

Autofluorescence of beer probed by conventional and multidimensional fluorescence techniques – total luminescence and synchronous scanning fluorescence spectroscopy – is discussed. The spectra of beers reveal the presence of similar fluorescent components in beers of various brands, exhibiting a relatively intense short-wavelength emission ascribed to aromatic amino acids, and a less intense emission in the long-wavelength region, which may originate from the group B vitamins and polyphenolics. Application of multivariate methods to emission data treatment enables quantitative and qualitative analysis of beers based on fluorescence measurements. Examples are provided for application of the techniques to classification of beers, controlling changes during storage, and determination of bitterness of beers and their vitamin B 2 contents. The performance of fluorescence in beer analysis is compared with that of other spectroscopic methods. The potential of these methods in food analysis, screening, and quality control is discussed.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the concept of acquired cerebellar ataxias and its differential diagnosis. The acquired cerebellar ataxias are chronic diseases of the cerebellum that are due to exogenous or endogenous nongenetic causes. The presence of a nongenetic cause distinguishes the acquired cerebellar ataxias from the hereditary and nonhereditary degenerative ataxias. Although degeneration in hereditary and nonhereditary degenerative ataxias often involves the spinal cord and other parts of the brain, the acquired cerebellar degenerations are usually restricted to the cerebellar cortex. Clinically, they are characterized by persistent and often severe ataxia. However, in contrast to hereditary and nonhereditary degenerative ataxias, ataxia is not necessarily progressive. The acquired ataxias can be divided into three major subcategories: ataxias caused by toxicity, immune-mediated ataxias, and ataxias caused by vitamin deficiency. Very rarely, other causes can be identified that cannot be subsumed under these categories. There is some overlap between the toxic and vitamin-deficiency ataxias, because alcoholic cerebellar degeneration (ACD) is assumed to be due to the combined effect of alcohol toxicity and vitamin B 1 /thiamine deficiency.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the various schemes proposed for the classification of cheeses that indicate that the description of extra-hard varieties is not always unequivocal. Grana Padano cheese is manufactured in several provinces of the Pianura Padana. Several types of Asiago cheese are manufactured that differ mainly in the duration of ripening. Asiago d’Allevo is a hard or extra-hard cheese variety, ripened for approximately 12 months, and typically produced in the Veneto region. The ripening of most cheeses is accompanied by a low level of lipolysis but extensive lipolysis occurs in several extra-hard varieties. Some of the most famous Italian extra-hard varieties have also been characterized from the point of view of nutrition. Parmigiano Reggiano and Grana Padano cheeses have considerable levels of fat-soluble vitamins A and D, and they are highly appreciated for elevated amounts of vitamin B 12 .

V. Conclusions : As can be seen from the above review, the majority of the problems associated with determining the sequence of events and intermediates in the pathway to B 12 have been solved, especially those of the aerobic pathway. Isolation of a few of the intermediates of the anaerobic pathway, on the other hand, has proved more difficult due to problems not encountered in the aerobic pathway such as insolubility of overexpressed enzymes, mismethylations by CysG and CbiF leading to derailment products, and interference by cobalt in obtaining high quality NMR spectra. Even after the biosynthesis, isolation, and characterization of ***cobalt-Factor IV, these problems have persisted. Genome sequencing projects, however, are providing new sources of genes encoding the enzymes needed for the synthesis of these intermediates and may help overcome some of these obstacles.

The inactive brewery yeast suspension as the by-product of the beer production contains vitamin B and trace elements in relatively high concentration therefore; the dried powder after tabletting can be circulated as roborant. Drying experiments are performed in a laboratory scale Mechanically Spouted Bed (MSB) dryer with inert particles and the optimum process parameters were determined. On the basis of these data an industrial scale dryer with a capacity of 100 kg water/h was designed. The most important steps of scale-up calculation are presented. For drying of materials of high moisture content, which cannot be directly fluidized or spouted, drying on inert particles can be advantageously applied. The principle of drying is that the inert particles as an auxiliary phase form the fluidized or spouted beds. In such a case the suspension is fed into the moving or circulating bed of the inert particles, which provide a large specific surface for contacting. The wet solid distributed on the large specific surface of the inert particles forms a thin layer in which a very short drying process occurs. Because of the friction of the inert particles the dried fine solid wears off the surface, then the fine product is carried out by the air stream.

Poisonings with alcohols and glycols mainly involve patients who have ingested ethanol alone or in combination with other drugs, for example hypnotics and sedatives. Treatment for this group of poisonings consists primarily of gastric decontamination and supportive care. Many of these patients are heavy alcohol consumers and therefore need special attention as to supplementation with vitamin B 1 (to avoid Wernicke's encephalopathy) and to the possible development of delirium tremens (DT) during the withdrawal period following an acute overdose. Another problem results from the ingestion of technical spirits containing different alcohols. Although several toxic alcohols might be ingested, a less toxic alcohol, such as isopropanol or ethanol, may temporarily protect against the effects of more toxic alcohols, such as methanol or ethylene glycol. In such situations, the severe toxicity with metabolic acidosis does not develop until after the protecting alcohols are eliminated. This chapter discusses the toxicity caused by various alcohols and glycols, with their clinical manifestations and treatment.